Sığırlarda Mastitis Tanı Yöntemleri ve İncelenmesi
Özet
Mastitis, meme bezinin inflamasyonu ile karakterize edilen ve süt hayvancılığında ciddi ekonomik kayıplara neden olan en önemli hastalıklardan biridir. Küresel ölçekte, mastitisin neden olduğu ekonomik kaybın yaklaşık 53 milyar dolar olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Hastalık, dünya genelinde yaygın olarak görülmekte olup; bakteriler, virüsler, aktinomisetler, mantarlar, mikoplazmalar ve algler gibi çeşitli mikroorganizmalar etken olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Ayrıca Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli ve Listeria monocytogenes gibi gıda kaynaklı bazı patojenlerin de mastitisin etiyolojisinde rol oynadığı bilinmektedir. Mastitis etkenleri; iklim koşulları, hayvan türleri ve uygulanan hayvancılık yöntemlerine bağlı olarak bölgesel farklılıklar gösterebilmektedir. Bu patojenlerin meme bezine ulaşımı genellikle meme başı kanalı aracılığıyla gerçekleşmektedir. Genel sınıflandırmaya göre, mastitis etkenleri primer ve sekonder patojenler olarak ikiye ayrılmaktadır. İletim yollarına göre ise mastitis; bulaşıcı ve çevresel olmak üzere iki temel grupta değerlendirilmektedir. Bununla birlikte, klinik belirtilerin varlığına göre klinik ve subklinik mastitis (SCM) formlarından söz edilmektedir. Hastalığın ortaya çıkmasında pek çok faktör etkili olmaktadır. Bu faktörler arasında epidemiyolojik (çevresel), konakçıya ait, patojene özgü ve yönetimsel unsurlar sayılabilir. Geleneksel mastitis tanı yöntemleri arasında Kaliforniya Mastitis Testi (CMT) ve somatik hücre sayısı (SHS) yer almaktadır. Ancak son yıllarda polimeraz zincir reaksiyonu (PCR) teknolojisinin gelişimi, özellikle multiplex ve gerçek zamanlı PCR tekniklerinin uygulanması, tanı süreçlerinde hem hız hem de hassasiyet açısından önemli avantajlar sağlamıştır. Bunun yanı sıra, haptoglobin ve serum amiloid A (SAA) gibi akut faz proteinleri de mastitisin izlenmesinde potansiyel biyobelirteçler olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Mastitisin yönetiminde "önleme, tedaviden daha etkilidir" ilkesi büyük önem taşımaktadır. Zira meme alveollerine, mezenşim dokusuna, meme başı kanalı ve yapısına verilen zararlar genellikle geri döndürülemez niteliktedir. Bu nedenle, etkili hijyen uygulamaları ve modern hayvancılık sistemlerinin benimsenmesi, mastitis insidansını önemli ölçüde azaltabilir. Mastitisin kontrolü, süt sığırlarında yürütülen kapsamlı sağlık programlarının ayrılmaz bir bileşeni olmalıdır. Günümüzde mevcut antibiyotiklerin karşılaştığı direnç sorunlarını göz önünde bulundurarak, bitkisel kaynaklı alternatif tedavi seçeneklerinin araştırılması da büyük önem taşımaktadır.
Referanslar
Pal M. First Record of Camel Mastitis due to Candida albicans in Ethiopia . Indian Journal of Comparative Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases. 2015;36(1):32–4.
Pal M. Mastitis: A major production disease of dairy animals. Agriculture World. 2018;4(1):46–51.
Pal M, Regasa A, Gizaw F. Etiology, Pathogenesis, Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Management of Bovine Mastitis: A Comprehensive Review. Int J Anim Vet Sci. 2020 Mar 29;6:40–55.
Radostits OM., Done SH. Diseases of the Mammary Gland. In: Constable PD, Hınchclıff KW, Done SH, Grünberg W, editors. Veterinary Medicine A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Horses, Sheep, Pigs, and Goats. 11th ed. Saunders Elsevier; 2007. p. 1904–2001.
Biffa D, Debela E, Beyene F. Prevalence and risk factors of mastitis in lactating dairy cows in Southern Ethiopia. Int J Appl Res Vet Med. 2005;3(3).
Zhao X, Lacasse P. Mammary tissue damage during bovine mastitis: Causes and control1. J Anim Sci. 2008 Mar 1;86(suppl_13):57–65.
Watts JL. Etiological agents of bovine mastitis. Vet Microbiol. 1988 Jan;16(1):41–66.
Kuang Y, Tani K, Synnott AJ, Ohshima K, Higuchi H, Nagahata H, et al. Characterization of bacterial population of raw milk from bovine mastitis by culture-independent PCR-DGGE method. Biochem Eng J. 2009 Jun 1;45(1):76–81.
Gudmundson J, Chirino‐Trejo JM. A Case of Bovine Mastitis caused by Campylobacter jejuni. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B. 1993;40(1–10).
Jensen NE, Aarestrup FM, Jensen J, Wegener HC. Listeria monocytogenes in bovine mastitis. Possible implication for human health. Int J Food Microbiol [Internet]. 1996 Sep 1 [cited 2025 Apr 28];32(1–2):209–16. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0168160596011051?via%3Dihub
Pal M, Lee C woo. Association of Prototheca with Bovine Mastitis. Journal of veterinary clinics [Internet]. 1997 Jun 1 [cited 2025 Apr 28];14(2):349–51. Available from: https://www.e-jvc.org/journal/view.html?spage=349&volume=14&number=2
Pal M, Lemu D, Bilata T. Isolation, Identification and Antibiogram of Bacterial Pathogens from Bovine Subclinical Mastitis in Asella, Ethiopia. International Journal of Livestock Research. 2017;1.
Pal M, Mehrotra BS. Cryptococcal mastitis in dairy animals. Mykosen. 1983 Jul 18;26(12):615–6.
Wellenberg GJ, van der Poel WHM, Van Oirschot JT. Viral infections and bovine mastitis: a review. Vet Microbiol. 2002 Aug;88(1):27–45.
Zecconi A. Contagious mastitis control program: The Staphylococcus aureus case. Cattle Practice. 2006 Nov;14(2):67–75.
Lassa H, Smulski S. Yeast like fungi as etiological agents of mastitis in cows. Życie Weterynaryjne. 2013;88(11):954–6.
Zadoks RN, Schukken YH. Use of Molecular Epidemiology in Veterinary Practice. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice. 2006 Mar;22(1):229–61.
Zafalon L, Filho A, Oliveira J V, Resende F. Subclinical mastitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus: Cost benefit analysis of antibiotic therapy in lactating cows. Arq Bras Med Vet Zootec. 2007 Apr;59:577–85.
Sharif A, Umer Chhalgari M, Muhammad G. Mastitis control in dairy production. J Agric Soc Sci. 2009 Apr;5:1813–2235.
Kul E, Erdem H, Atasever S. Süt Sığırlarında Farklı Meme Özelliklerinin Mastitis ve Süt Somatik Hücre Sayısı Üzerine Etkileri. Anadolu Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi. 2006;21(3):350–6.
Saat N, Yuksel M, Toraman ZA, Risvanli A. The efficiency of Corynebacterium cutis lysate in cows with subclinical mastitis. Res Opin Anim Vet Sci. 2016;6(3):108–10.
Saat N, Ayalp Erkan A. Koyunlarda Mastitis ve Kan Demir Düzeyi. In: Bilgili A, Hanedan B, editors. Veteriner Hekimlik Bilimlerinde Güncel Tartışmalar 3. 1st ed. Ankara: Bidge Yayınları; 2023. p. 20–36.
Blowey R, Edmondson P. The Mastitis Organisms. In: Mastitis Control in Dairy Herds. 2nd ed. CABI Publishing; 2010. p. 33–59.
Fox LK, Gay JM. Contagious mastitis. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 1993 Nov;9(3):475–87.
Smith KL. A practical look at environmental mastitis. Bov Pract (Stillwater). 1986;73–6.
Jones GM, Bailey TL. Understanding the basics of mastitis. Virginia Cooperative Extension [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2025 Jul 17];1(1):1–5. Available from: https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/21447d06-36f4-448f-90df-18aebf51ea2a/content
Abrahmsén M, Persson Y, Kanyima BM, Båge R. Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in dairy farms in urban and peri-urban areas of Kampala, Uganda. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2014 Jan;46(1):99–105.
Tomita G, Hart S. The mastitis problem. Proc 16th Ann Goat Field Day Langston University, Langston, Oklahoma. 2001;6–9.
Sori H, Zerihun A, Abdicho S. Dairy Cattle Mastitis In and Around Sebeta, Ethiopia. The International Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine. 2005;3(4):332–8.
Malinowski E, Gajewski Z. Mastitis and fertility disorders in cows. Pol J Vet Sci. 2010;13(3):555–60.
Shuster DE, Harmon RJ, Jackson JA, Hemken RW. Endotoxin Mastitis in Cows Milked Four Times Daily. J Dairy Sci. 1991 May;74(5):1527–38.
Eckersall PD, Young FJ, McComb C, Hogarth CJ, Safi S, Weber A, et al. Acute phase proteins in serum and milk from dairy cows with clinical mastitis. Vet Rec. 2001 Jan 13;148(2):35–41.
Erskine RJ, Bartlett PC, Johnson GL, Halbert LW. Intramuscular administration of ceftiofur sodium versus intramammary infusion of penicillin/novobiocin for treatment of Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis in dairy cows. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1996 Jan 15;208(2):258–60.
Pyörälä S. Indicators of inflammation in the diagnosis of mastitis. Vet Res. 2003;34(5):565–78.
Aarestrup FM. Veterinary Drug Usage and Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria of Animal Origin. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2005 Apr 8;96(4):271–81.
McFadden M. California mastitis test and milk quality. Michigan Dairy Review. 2011;16(2):1–3.
Kizil O, Akar Y, Saat N, Kizil M, Yuksel M. The plasma lipid peroxidation intensity (MDA) and chain-breaking antioxidant concentrations in the cows with clinic or subclinic mastitis. Rev Med Vet (Toulouse). 2007 Nov 1;158:529–33.
Oliver SP. Frequency of isolation of environmental mastitis-causing pathogens and incidence of new intramammary infection during the nonlactating period. Am J Vet Res. 1988 Nov;49(11):17–89.
Atasever S, Erdem H. Association between subclinical mastitis markers and body condition scores of Holstein cows in the Black Sea region, Turkey. J Anim Vet Adv. 2009;8(3):476–80.
Taverna F, Negri A, Piccinini R, Zecconi A, Nonnis S, Ronchi S, et al. Characterization of cell wall associated proteins of a Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine mastitis case by a proteomic approach. Vet Microbiol. 2007 Jan;119(2–4):240–7.
Malinowski E, Lassa H, Klossowska A, Markiewicz H, Kaczmarowski M, Smulski S. Relationship between mastitis agents and somatic cell count in foremilk samples. Bulletin-Veterinary Institute In Pulawy. 2006 Jun 13;50(3):349–52.
Peeler E, Green M, Fitzpatrick J, Morgan K, Green L. Risk Factors Associated with Clinical Mastitis in Low Somatic Cell Count British Dairy Herds. J Dairy Sci. 2000 Dec 1;83(11):2464–72.
Persson Y, Nyman AKJ, Grönlund-Andersson U. Etiology and antimicrobial susceptibility of udder pathogens from cases of subclinical mastitis in dairy cows in Sweden. Acta Vet Scand. 2011 Dec 8;53(1):36–53.
Schukken YH, Günther J, Fitzpatrick J, Fontaine MC, Goetze L, Holst O, et al. Host-response patterns of intramammary infections in dairy cows. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2011 Dec 15;144(3–4):270–89.
Fox LK, Zadoks RN, Gaskins CT. Biofilm production by Staphylococcus aureus associated with intramammary infection. Vet Microbiol. 2005 May;107(3–4):295–9.
Djabri B, Bareille N, Beaudeau F, Seegers H. Quarter milk somatic cell count in infected dairy cows: a meta-analysis. Vet Res. 2002 Jul;33(4):335–57.
Pyörälä S, Taponen S. Coagulase-negative staphylococci-emerging mastitis pathogens. Vet Microbiol. 2009 Feb 16;134(1–2):3–8.
Taponen S, Salmikivi L, Simojoki H, Koskinen MT, Pyörälä S. Real-time polymerase chain reaction-based identification of bacteria in milk samples from bovine clinical mastitis with no growth in conventional culturing. J Dairy Sci. 2009 Jun;92(6):2610–7.
Yıldız AŞ, Altın O. Erzincan İli Süt Sığırcılığı İşletmelerinde Postpartum Dönem Klinik Mastitis İnsidensi ve İnsidense Etkili Bazı Faktörler. Harran Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi. 2022;11(2):248–56.
Rişvanlı A, Saat N, Şafak T, Yılmaz Ö, Yüksel BF, Kılınç MA, et al. Türkiye’de farklı niteliklere sahip süt sığırı işletmelerinde mastitisin koruma ve kontrolü kapsamındaki bazı uygulamaların düzeyleri. Eurasian Journal of Veterinary Sciences. 2021;37(2):121–9.
Risvanli A, Doğan H, Saat N, Şeker I. Relationship between pulsed wave Doppler ultrasonographic features of milk veins and CMT scores in Simmental cows. Ankara Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi. 2018 Mar 1;65:69–72.
Baştan A. Mastitislerin Patogenezi. In: Baştan A, editor. İneklerde meme sağlığı ve sorunları. 3rd ed. Ankara: Nobel Kitabevi; 2019. p. 102–4.
Viguier C, Arora S, Gilmartin N, Welbeck K, O’Kennedy R. Mastitis detection: current trends and future perspectives. Trends Biotechnol. 2009;27(8):486–93.
Lima SF, Bicalho ML de S, Bicalho RC. Evaluation of milk sample fractions for characterization of milk microbiota from healthy and clinical mastitis cows. PLoS One. 2018;13(3):e0193671.
Godden SM, Royster E, Timmerman J, Rapnicki P, Green H. Evaluation of an automated milk leukocyte differential test and the California Mastitis Test for detecting intramammary infection in early- and late-lactation quarters and cows. J Dairy Sci. 2017 Aug;100(8):6527–44.
Risvanli A, Kaygusuzoglu E, Saat N, Korkmaz H, Şeker I, Köseman A. Determining demographic characteristics of breeders and their knowledge of reproduction, herd health and hygiene issues in dairy farms in Malatya. Eurasian Journal of Veterinary Sciences. 2016 Jun 30;32.
Risvanli A, Şeker I, Saat N, Karagulle B, Köseman A, Kaygusuzoglu E. The management practices and microbiological quality of a dairy farm with low bulk tank milk somatic cell count. Pak Vet J. 2017 Jan 1;37:175–9.
Kalorey DR, Kurkure N V., Warke SR, Barbuddhe SB. Evaluation of Indirect and Avidin–Biotin Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assays for Detection of Anti‐Listeriolysin O Antibodies in Bovine Milk Samples. Zoonoses Public Health. 2007 Oct 24;54(8):301–6.
Paape MJ, Weinland BT. Effect of Abraded Intramammary Device on Milk Yield, Tissue Damage, and Cellular Composition. J Dairy Sci. 1988 Jan;71(1):250–6.
Lee CS, Wooding FBP, Kemp P. Identification, properties, and differential counts of cell populations using electron microscopy of dry cows secretions, colostrum and milk from normal cows. Journal of Dairy Research. 1980 Feb 1;47(1):39–50.
Harmon RJ. Physiology of Mastitis and Factors Affecting Somatic Cell Counts. J Dairy Sci. 1994 Jul;77(7):2103–12.
Sharma N, Singh NK, Bhadwal MS. Relationship of somatic cell count and mastitis: An overview. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2011;24(3):429–38.
Bytyqi H, Zaugg U, Sherifi K, Hamidi A, Gjonbalaj M, Muji S, et al. Influence of management and physiological factors on somatic cell count in raw cow milk in Kosova. Vet Arh. 2010;80(2):173–83.
Dohoo IR, Meek AH. Somatic cell counts in bovine milk. Can Vet J. 1982 Apr;23(4):119–25.
Meek AH, Barnum DA, Newbould FHS. Use of Total and Differential Somatic Cell Counts to Differentiate Potentially Infected from Potentially Non-infected Quarters and Cows and Between Herds of Various Levels of Infection. J Food Prot. 1980 Jan;43(1):10–4.
Craven N, Williams MR. Defences of the bovine mammary gland against infection and prospects for their enhancement. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 1985 Oct;10(1):71–127.
Reichmuth J. Somatic cell counting-interpretation of results (Page 93 in IDF Seminar on Mastitis Control). Annual Bulletin, International Dairy Federation. Brussels; 1975.
Jensen DL, Eberhart RJ. Total and differential cell counts in secretions of the nonlactating bovine mammary gland. Am J Vet Res. 1981 May;42(5):743–7.
Beckely MS, Johnson T. 5 Year Study of California Mastitis Test Testing on a Commercial Dairy Herd. J Dairy Sci. 1966;49(6):746.
Şeker I, Risvanli A, Yuksel M, Saat N, Ozmen O. Relationship between California Mastitis Test score and ultrasonographic teat measurements in dairy cows. Aust Vet J. 2009 Dec 1;87:480–3.
Blackburn PS. The variation in the cell count of cow’s milk throughout lactation and from one lactation to the next. Journal of Dairy Research. 1966;33(2):193–8.
Skrzypek R, Wójtowski J, Fahr R ‐D. Factors Affecting Somatic Cell Count in Cow Bulk Tank Milk – A Case Study from Poland. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series A. 2004 Apr 23;51(3):127–31.
Smith KL, Todhunter DA, Schoenberger PS. Environmental Mastitis: Cause, Prevalence, Prevention. J Dairy Sci. 1985 Jun;68(6):1531–53.
White F, Rattray EAS. Diurnal variation in the cell content of cows’ milk. J Comp Pathol. 1965 Jul;75(3):253–61.
Dohoo IR, Meek AH, Martin SW. Somatic cell counts in bovine milk: relationships to production and clinical episodes of mastitis. Can J Comp Med. 1984 Apr;48(2):130–5.
Schukken YH, Wilson DJ, Welcome F, Garrison-Tikofsky L, Gonzalez RN. Monitoring udder health and milk quality using somatic cell counts. Vet Res. 2003 Sep;34(5):579–96.
Saat N, Risvanli A, Şeker I, Kaygusuzoglu E, Köseman A. Optimization of the estrus synchronization method and determining its effect on bulk tank milk somatic cell count in dairy cattle farming. Int J Agric Biol. 2017 Aug 1;19:801–4.
Saat N, Tavsanli H, İlhan Z. Somatic Cell Count and Bacteriological Evaluation of Milk Obtained from Clinically Healthy Goat. Kocatepe Veterinary Journal Kocatepe Vet J. 2021;14(4):451–7.
Nielen M, Deluyker H, Schukken YH, Brand A. Electrical Conductivity of Milk: Measurement, Modifiers, and Meta Analysis of Mastitis Detection Performance. J Dairy Sci. 1992 Feb;75(2):606–14.
Wyder AB, Boss R, Naskova J, Kaufmann T, Steiner A, Graber HU. Streptococcus spp. and related bacteria: Their identification and their pathogenic potential for chronic mastitis – A molecular approach. Res Vet Sci. 2011 Dec;91(3):349–57.
Zadoks R, Watts J. Species identification of coagulase-negative staphylococci: Genotyping is superior to phenotyping. Vet Microbiol. 2009 Feb 16;134(1–2):20–8.
Katholm J, Bennedsgaard TW, Koskinen MT, Rattenborg E. Quality of bulk tank milk samples from Danish dairy herds based on real-time polymerase chain reaction identification of mastitis pathogens. J Dairy Sci. 2012 Oct;95(10):5702–8.
Hoeben D, Burvenich C, Heyneman R. Antibiotics Commonly Used to Treat Mastitis and Respiratory Burst of Bovine Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes. J Dairy Sci. 1998 Feb;81(2):403–10.
Ullberg S, Hansson E, Funke H. Distribution of penicillin in mastitic udders following intramammary injection-an auto-radiographic study. Am J Vet Res. 1958;19(70):84–92.
Wieland M, Abuelo A. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle#Severe-Clinical-Mastitis_v3291608. 2025. p. 1–15 Mastitis in Cattle.
Kossaibati MA, Esslemont RJ. The costs of production diseases in dairy herds in England. The Veterinary Journal. 1997 Jul;154(1):41–51.
Halasa T, Huijps K, Østerås O, Hogeveen H. Economic effects of bovine mastitis and mastitis management: A review. Veterinary Quarterly. 2007 Jan;29(1):18–31.
Schneider M del P, Strandberg E, Emanuelson U, Grandinson K, Roth A. The effect of veterinary-treated clinical mastitis and pregnancy status on culling in Swedish dairy cows. Prev Vet Med. 2007 Jul;80(2–3):179–92.
Osteras O, Hogeveen H, Singh DK, Leslie KE. Economic consequences of mastitis. Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation. 2005;394:2–25.
Olde Riekerink RGM, Ohnstad I, van Santen B, Barkema HW. Effect of an automated dipping and backflushing system on somatic cell counts. J Dairy Sci. 2012 Sep;95(9):4931–8.
De Vliegher S, Fox LK, Piepers S, McDougall S, Barkema HW. Invited review: Mastitis in dairy heifers: Nature of the disease, potential impact, prevention, and control. J Dairy Sci. 2012 Mar;95(3):1025–40.
Özsayın D, Çelik K. Mastitis Aşı Uygulamasının İşletmeler Üzerindeki Ekonomik Etkisi: Biga Örneği. Turkish Journal of Agricultural and Natural Science [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2025 Apr 28];2(2):185–92. Available from: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/issue-file/3059
Alkaya S, Saat N. Ruminantlarda Meme Bezinin Savunma Mekanizması ve Mastitis Riskinin Azaltılması. In: Şahin T, Ölmez M, editors. 5 International Food, Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences Congress [Internet]. 1st ed. Kars: IKSAD Publications; 2023 [cited 2025 Jul 14]. p. 496–506. Available from: https://www.gthk.org/
Saat N, Öztürk T. Türkiye’deki Sığır Mastitisine Yönelik Aşılar. In: Tufan T, İrak K, editors. Çiftlik Hayvanlarına Multidisipliner Yaklaşımlar-II. Ankara: İksad Yayınevi; 2024. p. 21–40.
Nawrotek P, Czernomysy-Furowicz D, Borkowski J, Fijałkowski K, Pobucewicz A. The effect of auto-vaccination therapy on the phenotypic variation of one clonal type of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cows with mastitis. Vet Microbiol. 2012 Mar;155(2–4):434–7.
