Kedi ve Köpeklerde Kardiyovasküler Helmint Enfeksiyonları
Referanslar
American Heartworm Society (AHS) Prevention, Diagnosis, and Management of Heartworm infection (Dirofilaria immitis) in dogs. (04/05/2026 tarihinde https://www.heartwormsociety.org/images/pdf/2018-AHS-Canine-Guidelines.pdf adresinden ulaşılmıştır.)
American Heartworm Society (AHS) Prevention, Diagnosis, and Management of Heartworm infection (Dirofilaria immitis) in cats. (04/05/2026 tarihinde https://www.heartwormsociety.org/images/pdf/2020_AHS_Feline_Guidelines.pdf adresinden ulaşılmıştır.)
Ames MK, VanVranken P, Evans C, et al. Non-Arsenical heartworm adulticidal therapy using topical moxidectin-imidacloprid and doxycycline: A prospective case series. Veterinary Parasitology. 2020;282: 109099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109099
Anvari D, Narouei E, Daryani A, et al. The global status of Dirofilaria immitis in dogs: a systematic review and meta analysis based on published articles. Research in Veterinary Science. 2020;131: 104-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.04.002
Atkins CE, DeFrancesco TC, Coats JR, et al. Heartworm infection in cats: 50 cases (1985-1997). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2000;217, 355-358. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2000.217.355
Atkins CE, DeFrancesco TC, Miller MW, et al. Prevalence of heartworm infection in cats with signs of cardiorespiratory abnormalities. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 1998;212,517-520.
Atkins CE, Keene BW, McGuirk SM. Pathophysiologic mechanism of cardiac dysfunction in experimentally induced heartworm caval syndrome in dogs: an echocardiographic study. American Journal of Veterinary Research. 1998;49:403-410
Atkins CE. Comparison of results of three commercial heartworm antigen test kits in dogs with low heartworm burdens. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2003;222:1221-1223. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2003.222.1221
Biasato I, Tursi M, Zanet S, et al. Pulmonary artery dissection causing haemothorax in a cat: potential role of Dirofilaria immitis infection and literature review. Journal of Veterinary Cardiology, 2017;19:82-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvc.2016.08.004
Bouchery T, Lefoulon E, Karadjian G, et al. The symbiotic role of Wolbachia in Onchocercidae and its impact on filariasis. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2013;19: 131-140. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-0691.12069
Bowman D. Respiratory system parasites of the dog and cat (part II): trachea and bronchi, and pulmonary vessels. Companion and Exotic Animal Parasitology. 2000;1-15.
Colella V, Lia RP, Premont J, et al. Angiostrongylus vasorum in the eye: new case reports and a review of the literature. Parasites & Vectors. 2016; 9(1):161. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1440-6
Conboy GA, Sykes JE. Nematode infections of the respiratory tract. In: Sykes JE, Rankin SC, Papich MG, Weese J, Little SE (eds.) Greene’s infectious diseases of the dog and cat. 5th ed. Missouri: Elsevier; 2023. p.1505-1527.
Conboy GA, Sykes JE. Nematode infections of the respiratory tract. In: Sykes JE (ed.) Greene’s Infectious diseases of the dog and cat. 5th ed. St Louis: Elsevier; 2023. p. 1505-1527.
Courtney CH and Cornell JA. Evaluation of heartworm immunodiagnostic tests. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 1990;97:724 729.
Courtney CH and Zeng Q. Comparison of heartworm antigen test kit performance in dogs having low heartworm burdens. Veterinary Parasitology. 2001;96:317-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017(01)00374-0
Dantas-Torres F, Ketzis J, Tort GP, et al. Heartworm adulticide treatment: a tropical perspective. Parasites & Vectors. 2023;16(1):148. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-023-05690-8
Davidson BL, Rozanski EA, Tidwell AS, et al. Pulmonary thromboembolism in a heartworm-positive cat. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2006;20(4):1037-1041. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2006.tb01826.x
DeFrancesco TC, Atkins CE, Miller MW, et al. Use of echocardiography for the diagnosis of heartworm disease in cats: 43 cases (1985-1997). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2001;218:66-69. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.66
Di Cesare A, Traversa D (2014). Canine angiostrongylosis: recent advances in diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. Veterinary Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 2014;5:181-192. https://doi.org/10.2147/VMRR.S53641
Di Cesare, A., Morelli, S., Colombo, M., et al. Is angiostrongylosis a realistic threat for domestic cats?. Frontiers in Veterinary Science.2020; 7:195. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00195
Diakou A, Psalla D, Migli D, et al. First evidence of the European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris) as definitive host of Angiostrongylus chabaudi. Parasitology Research. 2016;115(3):1235-1244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-015-4860-x
DiGangi BA, Dworkin C, Stull JW, et al. Impact of heat treatment on Dirofilaria immitis antigen detection in shelter dogs. Parasites & Vectors. 2017;10(2):483. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-017-2443-7
Dillon AR and Blagburn BL. Feline heartworm disease: Solving the puzzle. (04/05/2026 tarihinde https://www.dvm360.com/view/feline-heartworm-disease-solving-puzzle adresinden ulaşılmıştır.)
Dillon AR, Blagburn BL, Tillson D, et al. Immature heartworm infection produces pulmonary parenchymal, airway, and vascular disease in cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2007;21(3):608–609.
Dillon AR, Blagburn BL, Tillson M, et al. Heartworm associated respiratory disease (HARD) induced by immature adult Dirofilaria immitis in cats. Parasites& Vectors. 2017;10(2):514. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-017-2452-6
Dillon AR, Blagburn BL, Tillson M, et al. The progression of heartworm associated respiratory disease (HARD) in SPF cats 18 months after Dirofilaria immitis infection. Parasites & Vectors. 2017;10(2):533. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-017-2425-9
Dillon AR, Brawner Jr AR, Robertson-Plouch CK, et al. Feline heartworm disease: correlations of clinical signs, serology, and other diagnostics-results of a multicenter study. Veterinary Therapeutics. 2000;1(3):176-82.
Dillon AR, Warner A, Hudson J, et al. Role of PIM in inflammatory lung disease of cats and dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 1996;10:162.
Dillon AR, Warner AE, Brawner W, et al. Activity of pulmonary intravascular macrophages in cats and dogs with and without adult Dirofilaria immitis. Veterinary Parasitology. 2008;158(3):171–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.09.004
Doğanay A. Ankara köpeklerinde görülen helmint türleri, bunların yayılışı ve halk sağlığı yönünden önemi. Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi. 1983;30(4):652-656. https://doi.org/10.1501/Vetfak_0000000188
Donahoe JM, Kneller SK, Lewis RE. Hematologic and radiographic changes in cats after inoculation with infective larvae of Dirofilaria immitis. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 1976;
168:413-417.
Elsheikha HM, Holmes SA, Wright I, et al. Recent advances in the epidemiology, clinical and diagnostic features, and control of canine cardio-pulmonary angiostrongylosis. Veterinary Research 2014;45:92. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13567-014-0092-9
ESCCAP (2012): Guideline 5. Control of Vector-Borne Diseases in Dogs and Cats.
European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites (ESSCAP). Worm control in dogs and cats (03/05/2026 tarihinde https://www.esccap.org/uploads/docs/biu0jhej_0778_ESCCAP_GL1__English_2025_v21_1p.pdf adresinden ulaşılmıştır).
European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites. Control of Vector-Borne Diseases in Dogs and Cats. (04/05/2026 tarihinde https://www.esccap.org/uploads/docs/32ir16g1_0775_ESCCAP_Guideline_GL5_20241203_1p.pdf adresinden ulaşılmıştır.)
Ferdushy T, Hasan MT. Angiostrongylus vasorum: the ‘French Heartworm’. Parasitology Reseach. 2010; 107:765-771. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-010-2026-4
Genchi C, Rinaldi L, Cringoli G. Dirofilaria immitisand D. repens in dog and cat and human infections. (04/05/2026 tarihinde https://journals.pagepress.net/mappe/article/view/7154/6816 adresinden ulaşılmıştır.)
Genchi M, Ciuca L, Vismarra A, et al. Evaluation of alternative reagents on the performance of the modified Knott’s test. Veterinary Parasitology. 2021;298:109555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2021.109555
Gruntmeir J, Long M, Blagburn B, et al. Improved Antigen Detection of Male-Only Dirofilaria immitis Infections in Canine Serum after Heat Treatment for Immune Complex Dissociation. Parasitologia. 2023;3(1):79–86. https://doi.org/10.3390/parasitologia3010010
Gueldner EK, Schuppisser C, Borel N, et al. First case of a natural infection in a domestic cat (Felis catus) with the canid heart worm Angiostrongylus vasorum. Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports. 2019;18:100342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vprsr.2019.100342
Halos L. Parasitoses & Vector Borne Diseases of Cats. Lyon: Meral; 2015.
Hattendorf C, Lühken R. Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 2025;14(1):58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-025-01328-2
Helm JR, Morgan ER, Jackson MW, et al. Canine angiostrongylosis: an emerging disease in Europe. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care. 2010;20(1):98-109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-4431.2009.00494
Hirano Y, Kitagawa H, Sasaki Y. Relationship between pulmonary arterial pressure and pulmonary thromboembolism associated with dead worms in canine heartworm disease. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science. 1992;54(5):897-904. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.54.897
Hoch H, Strickland VK. Canine and feline dirofilariasis: life cyle, pathophysiology and diagnosis. Compendium for Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian. 2008;30(3):133-140.
Ishihara K, Kitagawa H, Ojima M, et al. Clinicopathological studies on canine dirofilarial hemoglobinuria. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science. 1978;40(5):525-537. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms1939.40.525
Kramer L, Grandia G, Leonia M, et al. Wolbachia and its influence on the pathology and immunology of Dirofilaria immitis infection. Veterinary Parasitology. 2008;158(3):191-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.09.014
Kramer L, Simón F, Tamarozzi F, et al. Is Wolbachia complicating the pathological effects of Dirofilaria immitis infections? Veterinary Parasitology. 2005;133(2-3):133-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.04.011
Leal-Sousa B, Esteves-Guimarães J, Matos JI, et al. Epidemiological mapping of canine angiostrongylosis in Portugal: findings from a nationwide prevalence survey. Veterinary Sciences, 2025; 12(7):647. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12070647
Lee ACY, Atkins CE. Understanding Feline Heartworm Infection: Disease, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine. 2010;25(4):224-230. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.tcam.2010.09.003
Little S, Saleh M, Wohltjen M, et al. Prime detection of Dirofilaria immitis: understanding the influence of blocked antigen on heartworm test performance. Parasites & Vectors. 2018;11(1):186. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-2736-5
Ludlam KW, Jachowski LA Jr, Otto GF. Potential vectors of Dirofilaria immitis. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 1970;157(10):1354-1359.
Magnis J, Lorentz S, Guardone L, et al. Morphometric analyses of canine blood microfilariae isolated by the Knott’s test enables Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens species-specific and Acanthocheilonema (syn. Dipetalonema) genus-specific diagnosis. Parasites & Vectors. 2013;6:48. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-6-48.
Matos JI, Caro-Vadillo A, Falcón-Cordón Y, et al. Echocardiographic assessment of the pulmonary vein to pulmonary artery ratio in canine heartworm diseas. Animals. 2023;13(4):703. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040703
McCall JW, Genchi C, Kramer LH, et al. Heartworm Disease in Animals and Humans. Advances in Parasitology. 2008;66:193-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-308X(08)00204-2
McCracken MD and Patton, S. Pulmonary Arterial Changes in Feline Dirofilariasis. Veterinary Pathology. 1993;30:64-69. https://doi.org/10.1177/030098589303000108
McGarry JW, Morgan ER. Identification of first-stage larvae of metastrongyles from dogs. Veterinary Record. 2009; 165(9):258-261. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.165.9.258
Mirceana M, Ionicăb AM, Mircean V, et al. Clinical and pathological effects of Dirofilaria repens and Dirofilaria immitis in a dog with a natural co-infection. Parasitology International. 2017;66(3):131-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2017.02.003
Momčilović S, Jovanović A, Gasser RB. Human dirofilariasis–A potentially significant nematode zoonosis in an era of climate change. Journal of Infection, 2025; 90(4):106460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2025.106460
Moorhead AR, Evans CC, Sakamoto K, et al. Effects of doxycycline dose rate and pre-adulticide wait period on heartworm-associated pathology and adult worm mass. Parasites & Vectors. 2023;16(1):251. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-023-05858-2
Morgan E, Shaw S. Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in dogs: continuing spread and developments in diagnosis and treatment. The Journal of Small Animal Practice. 2010;51(12):616-621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2010.01000.x
Morgan ER, Modry D, Paredes-Esquivel C, et al. Angiostrongylosis in animals and humans in Europe. Pathogens. 2021;10(10):1236. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101236
Murillo DFB, Moye A, Wang C. Heat Treatment Augments Antigen Detection of Dirofilaria immitis in Apparently Healthy Companion Dogs (3.8% to 7.3%): Insights from a Large-Scale Nationwide Survey across the United States. Pathogens. 2024;13(1);56. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010056
Nelson CT. Dirofilaria immitis in cats: Diagnosis and management. Compendium for Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian. 2008;30(7):393-400.
Noack S, Harrington J, Carithers DS, et al. Heartworm disease – Overview, intervention, and industry perspective. International Journal for Parasitology: Drugs and Drug Resistance. 2021;16:65-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpddr.2021.03.004
Otranto D, Wall R. Veterinary Parasitology. 5th ed. Hoboken (NJ): Wiley-Blackwell; 2024.
Pasca SA, Acatrinei D, Oprean OZ, et al. Vascular, hepatic and renal lesions by Dirofilaria immitis invasion in dogs. Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia. 2012;64(4):841-846. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-09352012000400008
Pennisi MG, Tasker S, Hartmann K, et al. Dirofilarioses in cats European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery. 2020:22(5),442–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X20917601
Rawlings CA, Losonsky JM, Lewis RE, et al. Development and resolution of radiographic lesions in canine heartworm disease. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 1981;178(11):1172–1177.
Rawlings CA. Acute response of pulmonary blood flow and right ventricular function to Dirofilaria immitis adults and microfilaria. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 1980;41(2):244-249.
Ridyard A. Heartworm and lungworm in dogs and cats in the UK. In Practice. 2005;27(3):147-153. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1136/inpract.27.3.147
Romano AE, Saunders AB, Gordon SG, et al. Intracardiac heartworms in dogs: Clinical and echocardiographic characteristics in 72 cases (2010-2019). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2021;35(1):88-97. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15985
Romito G, Pane E, Guglielmini C, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of the American Heartworm Society therapeutic protocol in dogs affected by heartworm disease without caval syndrome. Journal of Small Animal Practice. 2024;65(1):39–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13677
Santiwattanatarm T, Sakcamduang W, Kongkaew C, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of non-arsenical adulticide protocols using moxidectin and doxycycline for the treatment of adult heartworm infection in dogs. Current Research in Parasitology & Vector-Borne Diseases. 2026;9:100372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpvbd.2026.100372
Schnyder M, Bilbrough G, Hafner C, et al. Angiostrongylus vasorum, "The French Heartworm": a serological survey in dogs from France introduced by a brief historical review. Parasitology Research. 2017;116:S31-S40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-017-5489-8
Schnyder M, Deplazes P. Cross-reactions of sera from dogs infected with Angiostrongylus vasorum in commercially available Dirofilaria immitis test kits. Parasites & Vectors. 2012;5:258. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-5-258
Schoch CL, Ciufo S, Domrachev M, et al. NCBI Taxonomy: a comprehensive update on curation, resources and tools. Database (Oxford). 2020;2020:baaa062. https://doi.org/10.1093/database/baaa062
Sevimli FK, Kozan E, Bülbül A, et al (2007). Dirofilaria immitis infection in dogs: unusually located and unusual findings. Parasitology Research. 2007;101(6):1487–1494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-007-0665-x
Simon F, Kramer LH, Roman A, et al. Immunopathology of Dirofilaria immitis Infection. Veterinary Research Communications. 2007;31:161–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-006-3387-0
Simón F, Siles-Lucas M, Morchón R, et al. Human and Animal Dirofilariasis: the Emergence of a Zoonotic Mosaic. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2012;25(3):507-544. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00012-12
Skrjabin K, Shikhobalova NPS, Schulz R, Popova TI, Boev SN, Delyamure SL. Key to parasitic nematodes. Jerusalem: Sivan Press; 1961.
Smith RC, Tomlinson TD, Bowles JV, et al. Comparative performance analysis of different microfilaria testing methods for Dirofilaria immitis in canine blood. Parasites & Vectors 2024;17(1):464. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-024-06537-6
Sobotyk C, Savadelis MD, Verocai GG. Detection and cross-reaction of Dirofilaria repens using a commercial heartworm antigen test kit. Veterinary Parasitology. 2021;289:109302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109302
Stevanović O, Despotović D, Prošić I, et al. Morphological and genetic diversity of Angiostrongylus vasorum. Macedonian Veterinary Review. 2025;48(2):117-135. https://doi.org/10.2478/macvetrev-2025-0029
Szatmári V, van Leeuwen MW, Piek CJ, et al. False positive antigen test for Dirofilaria immitis after heat treatment of the blood sample in a microfilaremic dog infected with Acanthocheilonema dracunculoides. Parasites & Vectors. 2020;13(1):501. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04376-9
Taylor AE. The development of Dirofilaria immitis in the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Journal of Helminthology. 1960;34(1-2):27-38. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022149X00020307
Taylor MJ, Bandi C, Hoerauf A. Wolbachia bacterial endosymbionts of filarial nematodes. Advances in Parasitology. 2005;60:245-284. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-308X(05)60004-8
Tiğin Y 1972. Ankara’da bir köpekte tesbit edilen Angiostrongylus vasorum Baillet, 1866 olayı. Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi. 1972;19(01-02):76-84. https://doi.org/10.1501/Vetfak_0000002382
Traversa D, Di Cesare A, Conboy G. Canine and feline cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes in Europe: emerging and underestimated. Parasites & Vectors. 2010;3:62. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-3-62
Traversa D, Guglielmini C. Feline aelurostrongylosis and canine angiostrongylosis: a challenging diagnosis for two emerging verminous pneumonia infections. Veterinary Parasitology. 2008;157(3-4):163-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.07.020
Traversa D, Lepri E, Veronesi F, et al. Metastrongyloid infection by Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, Troglostrongylus brevior and Angiostrongylus chabaudi in a domestic cat. International Journal for Parasitology. 2015;45(11):685-690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2015.05.005
Traversa D, Morelli S, Di Cesare A, et al. Felid Cardiopulmonary Nematodes: Dilemmas Solved and New Questions Posed. Pathogens. 2021:10:30. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10010030
Varcasia A, Tamponi C, Brianti E, et al. Angiostrongylus chabaudi Biocca, 1957: a new parasite for domestic cats? Parasites & Vectors. 2014;7:588. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-014-0588-1
Velasquez L, Blagburn BL, Duncan-Decoq R, et al. Increased prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis antigen in canine samples after heat treatment. Veterinary Parasitology. 2014;206(1-2): 67-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.03.021
Yamaguti, S. Systema helminthum. New York: Interscience Publishers Inc.; 1961.
Yamakawa Y, McGarry JW, Denk D, et al. Emerging canine angiostrongylosis in northern England: five fatal cases. Veterinary Record. 2009;164(5):149-152. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.164.5.149
Zajac AM, Conboy GA, Little SE, Reichard MV. Veterinary clinical parasitology. 9th ed. Hoboken (NJ): Wiley Blackwell; 2021