Biological Basis of Genetic Engineering and the Future of Gmo
Özet
The achievements in the field of genetics and biotechnology in recent decades have radically changed the direction of biological science. Genetic engineering allows, by purposeful intervention in the genetic material of living organisms, to change their hereditary characteristics and form new biological properties. Thanks to these technologies, the genetic structure of organisms has been studied in more depth, and the foundation for new diagnostic, therapeutic and biotechnological approaches at the molecular level has been laid. The scientific knowledge obtained as a result of the application of genetic engineering has made a significant contribution to the development of biology, especially molecular genetics and biotechnology.
GMO technologies (Genetically Modified Organisms) are one of the most striking results of this development. They have opened up important opportunities in areas such as increasing agricultural productivity, breeding plants resistant to diseases and climate change, eliminating hereditary diseases in animal husbandry, and producing biologically active substances such as vaccines and insulin in biomedicine. However, the widespread application of GMO technologies has also raised certain biological, ecological and ethical problems. The mixing of genetically modified species with natural populations as a result of gene flow can lead to a decrease in biodiversity, disruption of ecosystem stability and the creation of new genetic combinations. In addition, the impact of long-term consumption of GMO products on human health has not yet been fully scientifically proven.
Along with scientific and technological progress, ethical issues also play an important role in this area. Problems such as the limits of genetic intervention, human genome editing, potential impacts on nature and public trust in biotechnological development require a balanced and responsible approach. The main goal of the scientific community is to ensure that genetic technologies serve human well-being and the sustainable development of the ecosystem.
As a result, genetic engineering and GMO technologies will remain one of the main directions of future biological science. International control mechanisms, scientific regulations and public awareness programs should be strengthened for the sustainable, ethical and environmentally safe application of these technologies. Thus, genetic engineering can act as one of the main guarantors not only of scientific progress, but also of the future well-being of humanity.
Referanslar
Aluru, M., Xu, Y., Guo, R., Wang, Z., Li, S., White, W., & Rodermel, S. (2008). Generation of transgenic maize with enhanced provitamin A content. Journal of Experimental Botany 59(13):3551 3562. DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern212
Arpaia, S., et al. (2010). Assessing the environmental impact of Bt crops on soil organisms. Environmental Biosafety Research, 9[36], 13–23. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377767107_Environmental_Effects_Associated_with_Genetically_Modified_Crop_Cultivation-A_Review
Bapela, T., Shimelis, H., Tsilo, T. J., & Mathew, I. (2022). Genetic Improvement of Wheat for Drought Tolerance: Progress, Challenges and Opportunities. Plants, 11(10), 1331. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11101331
Bazan-Peregrino, M., Sainson, R.C.A., Carlisle, R.C., Thoma, C., Waters, R.A., Arvanitis, C., Harris, A.L., Hernandez-Alcoceba, R., and Seymour L. W. (2013). Combining virotherapy and angiotherapy for the treatment of breast cancer, Cancer Gene Therapy. 20, no. 8, pp. 461–468, 23846253, https://doi.org/10.1038/cgt.2013.41
Bennett, A.B., Chi Ham, C., Barrows, G., Sexton, S., & Zilberman, D. (2013). Agricultural Biotechnology: Economics, Environment, Ethics, and the Future. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 38: pp. 249 279. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-050912-124612
Berk, A. və Zipursky, S.L. (2000). Molecular Cell Biology, 4, WH Freeman, New York, NY, USA
Bernaola Galván, P., Carpena, P., Gómez Martín, C., Oliver, J.L. (2023). Compositional Structure of the Genome: A Review. Biology (Basel), 12(6), 849. DOI:10.3390/biology12060849
Bhatia, S., & Goyal, A. (2023). Industrial applications of GM microorganisms. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 11, 111245. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2023.111245
Brokowski, C., & Adli, M. (2018). CRISPR ethics: moral considerations for applications of a powerful tool. Journal of Molecular Biology, 431(1), 88 101. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.05.044
Brookes, G, Barfoot, P. (2020). Environmental impacts of genetically modified (GM) crop use 1996–2018: impacts on pesticide use and carbon emissions. GM Crops Food. 11(4):215–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2020.1773198
Budak, H., Hussain, B., Khan, Z., Ozturk, N. Z., & Ullah, N. (2015). From genetics to functional genomics: Improvement in drought signalling and tolerance in wheat. Frontiers in Plant Science. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.01012
Carroll, D. (2011). Genome engineering with zinc-finger nucleases. Genetics. Aug;188(4):773-82. doi: 10.1534/genetics.111.131433. PMID: 21828278; PMCID: PMC3176093.
Center for Food Safety (2022). Genetically Engineered Foods and the Environment. https://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/issues/311/ge-foods/ge-food-and-the-environment
Chen, K.Y., Knoepfler, P.S. (2016). To CRISPR and beyond: the evolution of genome editing in stem cells. Regen Med. Dec;11(8):801-816. doi: 10.2217/rme-2016-0107. Epub 2016 Dec 1. PMID: 27905217; PMCID: PMC5221123
Cuhra, M. (2015). Review of GMO safety assessment studies: glyphosate residues in Roundup Ready crops is an ignored issue. Environmental Sciences Europe, 27:20. DOI: 10.1186/s12302 015 0052 7
De Vendômois, J.S., Roullier, F, Cellier, D, Séralini, G.E. (2009). A Comparison of the Effects of Three GM Corn Varieties on Mammalian Health. Int J Biol Sci. 5(7):706–726. doi:10.7150/ijbs.5.706. Available from: https://www.ijbs.com/v05p0706.htm
Deng, H.X., Siddique, T. (2004). Transgenic Mouse Models and Human Neurodegenerative Disorders. JAMA Neurology. DOI: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.2620
Ding, Q., Lee, Y.K., Schaefer, E.A., Peters, D.T., Veres, A., Kim, K., & Cowan, C.A.A (2013). TALEN genome-editing system for generating human stem cell-based disease models. Cell Stem Cell. Feb 7;12(2):238-51. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2012.11.011. Epub 2012 Dec 13. PMID: 23246482; PMCID: PMC3570604
Elshafei, A.A., Ibrahim, E.I., Abdellatif, K.F. et al. (2024). Molecular and agro-morphological characterization of new barley genotypes in arid environments. BMC Biotechnol 24, 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12896-024-00861-6
Environmental Sciences Europe. (2022). Evaluation of adverse effects/events of genetically modified food consumption: a systematic review of animal and human studies. Environmental Sciences Europe, 34, 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00578-9
FAO (2003). Genetically Modified Organisms and the Environment. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/4/x9602e/x9602e07.htm
FAO. (2022). The State of Food and Agriculture: Leveraging agricultural biotechnology for sustainability. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/publications/sofa
Fauser, B.C.J.M., Mannaerts, B.M.J.L., Devroey, P., Leader, A., Boime, I., and Baird, D.T. (2009). Advances in recombinant DNA technology: corifollitropin alfa, a hybrid molecule with sustained follicle-stimulating activity and reduced injection frequency, Human Reproduction Update. 15, no. 3, pp. 309–321, https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmn065
Frewer, L.J., et al. (2013). Public perceptions of agri-food applications of genetic modification – A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 30(2), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2012.12.002
Genes & Nutrition. (2012). The application of GMOs in agriculture and in food production for a better nutrition: two different scientific points of view. Genes & Nutrition, 7, 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12263-012-0316-4
Giddings, L.V. (2020). Genetically modified crops and food security: Assessing the benefits and risks. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, pp. 12–24. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00012
Ginn, S.L., Alexander, I.E., Edelstein, M.L., Abedi, M.R., and Wixon, J. (2013). Gene therapy clinical trials worldwide to 2012—an update, Journal of Gene Medicine. 15, no. 2, pp. 65–77, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgm.2698
Hsu, P.D., Lander, E.S., & Zhang, F. (2014). Development and applications of CRISPR Cas9 for genome engineering. Cell, 157(6), 1262 1278. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.04.015
Jinek, M, Chylinski, K, Fonfara, I, Hauer, M, Doudna, J.A. (2020). Charpentier E. CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing: a review of applications in medicine and agriculture. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 20(3):181–191. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-019-0044-8
Jinek, M., Chylinski, K., Fonfara, I., Hauer, M., Doudna, J. A., & Charpentier, E. (2012). A programmable dual-RNA–guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity. Science, 337(6096), pp. 816–821. DOI: 10.1126/science.1225829
Kathagi, D., & Qaim, M. (2022). Sustainable access of quality seeds of genetically engineered crops in Eastern Africa–Case study of Bt cotton. PMC. DOI: 10.1186/s12889 022 14213 8
Kim, J., & Lee, G. (2021). Patents, ethics, biosafety and regulation using CRISPR technology. Biosafety and Health, 3(4), 175 183. DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2021.09.003
Klumper, W., & Qaim, M. (2014). A meta‐analysis of the impacts of genetically modified crops. PLoS ONE 9(11): e111118. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111118
Lederberg, J. (2003). What the Double Helix (1953) Has Meant for Basic Biomedical Science: A Personal Commentary. JAMA, 289(14), pp. 1715 1718. DOI:10.1001/jama.289.14.1715
Li X, et al. (2017). TALEN-mediated genome editing in human and animal cells. J Gene Med. 19(5): e2984. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgm.2984
Li, J., Manghwar, H., Sun, L., Li, J., Hussain, A., Wang, P., & Zhang, X. (2020). Application of genome editing techniques in plants and recent advances in CRISPR Cas systems. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 18(6), 1519 1534. DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13389
Li, S., et al. (2024). Advances in genetic engineering for biomedical applications. Nature Reviews Genetics, 25(3), 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-023-00602-7
Lomedico, P.T. (1982). Use of recombinant DNA technology to program eukaryotic cells to synthesize rat proinsulin: a rapid expression assay for cloned genes, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 79, no. 19, pp. 5798–5802, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.79.19.5798
Lopes, P.A., Pádua, M.S., & Guil Guerrero, J.L. (2025). An Overview of Transgenic Mouse Models for the Study of Alzheimer’s Disease. Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease, 2(1):2. DOI: 10.3390/jdad2010002
Méndez, C. and Salas, J.A. (2003) On the generation of novel anticancer drugs by recombinant DNA technology: the use of combinatorial biosynthesis to produce novel drugs, Combinatorial Chemistry High Throughput Screening. 6, no. 6, pp. 513–526, https://doi.org/10.2174/138620703106298699
Merten, O. and Gaillet, B. (2016). Viral vectors for gene therapy and gene modification approaches, Biochemical Engineering Journal. 108, pp. 98–115, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2015.09.005
Merten, O.W., Schweizer, M., Chahal, P., and Kamen, A.A. (2014). Manufacturing of viral vectors for gene therapy: part I. Upstream processing, Pharmaceutical Bioprocessing. 2, no. 2, pp. 183–203, https://doi.org/10.4155/pbp.14.16
Metzger, L.E. IV and Raetz, C.R.H., (2009). Purification and characterization of the lipid A disaccharide synthase (LpxB) from Escherichia coli, a peripheral membrane protein, Biochemistry. 48, no. 48, 11559–11571, https://doi.org/10.1021/bi901750f
Nabawy, E.M., Najeeb, Kh., Abdel, Aziz A.A.Kh., Ahmed El-Sheoudy (2024). A. Assessment of Drought Tolerance in Barley Genotypes Through Phenotypical and Molecular Analysis. Arab Universities Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 32(2), 231 248. DOI: 10.21608/AJS.2024.291703.1578
Nie, H., Yang, X., Zheng, S., & Hou, L. (2024). Gene Based Developments in Improving Quality of Tomato: Focus on Firmness, Shelf Life, and Pre and Post Harvest Stress Adaptations. Horticulture, 10(6). DOI: 10.3390/horticulturae10060641
Noack, M., et al. (2025). Next-generation smart GMO technologies for adaptive agriculture. Science, 379(6674), 234–242. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado9340
Paluchowska, P., Śliwka, J., & Yin, Z. (2022). Late blight resistance genes in potato breeding. Planta 256, 44. DOI: 10.1007/s00425 022 03910 6
Pellegrini, M., & Fernandez, A. (2018). Genetic engineering and biotechnology in modern agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 20(3), pp. 567–579, DOI: 10.1016/j.agbio.2018.04.006
Portin, P. & Wilkins, A. (2017). The Evolving Definition of the Term “Gene”. Genetics, 205(4), 1353 1364. DOI: 10.1534/genetics.116.196956
Prakash, D. (2011). Safety issues in genetically modified foods. ISRN Toxicology, 2011, 1–11. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.5402/2011/369573
Qaim, M. (2020). Role of genetically modified crops for food security and sustainable development. Global Food Security, 26, 100339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100339
Raman, R. (2017). The impact of Genetically Modified (GM) crops in modern agriculture: A review. GM Crops & Food, 8[22], 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2017.1413522
Ricroch, A., et al. (2021). Functional genomics and the future of GMO foods. Trends in Biotechnology, 39(11), 1225–1240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2021.02.005
Rivero-Müller A., Lajić S., and Huhtaniemi I. (2007). Assisted large fragment insertion by Red/ET-recombination (ALFIRE)—an alternative and enhanced method for large fragment recombineering, Nucleic Acids Research. 35, no. 10, article e78, https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkm250
Robertson, H.R., & Feng, G. (2011). Annual Research Review: Transgenic mouse models of childhood‐onset psychiatric disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(4):442 475. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469 7610.2011.02380.x
Rogers, C., et al. (2022). Engineering nitrogen-fixing plants: A sustainable solution for agriculture. Nature Biotechnology, 40(4), 504–517. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-021-01026-8
Romeis, J, et al. (2019). Ecological impacts of genetically modified crops on non-target organisms. Environ Sci Eur. 31(36):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-020-00301-0
Singh, J., & Ward, O.P. (2023). Genetically engineered microorganisms for bioremediation. Biotechnology Advances, 62, 108081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108081
Slayton, M.H., Ayala, N., & McDonough, C. W. (2021). Making, cloning, and the expression of human insulin genes in bacteria: The path to Humulin. Endocrine Reviews, 42(3), pp. 374–393. https://doi.org/10.1210/endrev/bnaa029
Tang, G, Qin, J, Dolnikowski, G.G., Russell, R.M., Grusak, M.A. (2009). Golden Rice is an effective source of vitamin A. Am J Clin Nutr. 89(6):1776–1783. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.27119. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/89/6/1776/5481936
Taylor Robinson, A.W., & Rajakaruna, S.S. (2016). Application of recombinant DNA technology (genetically modified organisms) to the advancement of agriculture, medicine, bioremediation and biotechnology industries. Journal of Applied Biotechnology & Bioengineering, 1(3), 78 80. DOI: 10.15406/jabb.2016.01.00013
Tsatsakis, A.M., et al. (2017). Safety evaluation of genetically modified crops and foods. Food Chem Toxicol. 107:519–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2017.07.035
Tsatsakis, A.M., Nawaz, M.A., Kouretas, D., et al. (2017). Environmental impacts of genetically modified plants: A review. Environmental Research, 156, pp. 818 833. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.03.011
Urnov, F.D., Rebar, E.J., Holmes, M.C., Zhang, H.S., Gregory, P.D. (2010). Genome editing with engineered zinc finger nucleases. Nature Reviews Genetics. 11(9), pp. 636–646. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2842
Venter, M. (2007). Synthetic promoters: genetic control through cis engineering, Trends in Plant Science. 12, no. 3, pp. 118–124, 17292658, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2007.01.002
Wei, J., Zhang, W., Li, J., Jin, Y., & Qiu, Z. (2022). Application of the transgenic pig model in biomedical research: A review. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 10:1031812. DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1031812
Xia, Y., Chen, F., Liu, K., Zhang, L., Duan, X., Zhang, X., & Zhu, Z. (2019). Compositional differences between conventional Chinese and genetically modified Roundup Ready soybeans. Crop & Pasture Science, 70(6):526 534. DOI: 10.1071/CP19006
Zhang, Y., et al. (2020). CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome editing for crop improvement. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 71, 659–687. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050718-100309
Zhu, H., & Zhu, J. (2019). Ethical considerations in the application of genetic engineering technologies. Bioethics Review, 43(2), pp. 112–129, DOI: 10.1007/s11017-019-09505-8
Zilberman, D., Holland, T., & Trilnick, I. (2018). Agricultural GMOs — What We Know and Where Scientists Disagree. Sustainability, 10(5), 1514. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051514
https://gmoanswers.com/gmos-medicine-and-pharmaceuticals
https://innovativegenomics.org/crisprpedia/
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mco2.645
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11057861/
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37269466/
https://www.biocompare.com/Editorial-Articles/593658-Applications-of-CRISPR-in-Medicine/
https://www.britannica.com/science/genetic-engineering/additional-info
https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/gmo-crops-animal-food-and-beyond
https://www.genetechnology.gov.au/using-gene-technology/human-health
https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/gene-therapy/about/pac-20384619
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235230422300079X
James, C. (2015). Global status of commercialized biotech/GM crops: 2015. ISAAA Brief No. 51. URL: https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/51/
Referanslar
Aluru, M., Xu, Y., Guo, R., Wang, Z., Li, S., White, W., & Rodermel, S. (2008). Generation of transgenic maize with enhanced provitamin A content. Journal of Experimental Botany 59(13):3551 3562. DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern212
Arpaia, S., et al. (2010). Assessing the environmental impact of Bt crops on soil organisms. Environmental Biosafety Research, 9[36], 13–23. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377767107_Environmental_Effects_Associated_with_Genetically_Modified_Crop_Cultivation-A_Review
Bapela, T., Shimelis, H., Tsilo, T. J., & Mathew, I. (2022). Genetic Improvement of Wheat for Drought Tolerance: Progress, Challenges and Opportunities. Plants, 11(10), 1331. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11101331
Bazan-Peregrino, M., Sainson, R.C.A., Carlisle, R.C., Thoma, C., Waters, R.A., Arvanitis, C., Harris, A.L., Hernandez-Alcoceba, R., and Seymour L. W. (2013). Combining virotherapy and angiotherapy for the treatment of breast cancer, Cancer Gene Therapy. 20, no. 8, pp. 461–468, 23846253, https://doi.org/10.1038/cgt.2013.41
Bennett, A.B., Chi Ham, C., Barrows, G., Sexton, S., & Zilberman, D. (2013). Agricultural Biotechnology: Economics, Environment, Ethics, and the Future. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 38: pp. 249 279. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-050912-124612
Berk, A. və Zipursky, S.L. (2000). Molecular Cell Biology, 4, WH Freeman, New York, NY, USA
Bernaola Galván, P., Carpena, P., Gómez Martín, C., Oliver, J.L. (2023). Compositional Structure of the Genome: A Review. Biology (Basel), 12(6), 849. DOI:10.3390/biology12060849
Bhatia, S., & Goyal, A. (2023). Industrial applications of GM microorganisms. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 11, 111245. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2023.111245
Brokowski, C., & Adli, M. (2018). CRISPR ethics: moral considerations for applications of a powerful tool. Journal of Molecular Biology, 431(1), 88 101. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.05.044
Brookes, G, Barfoot, P. (2020). Environmental impacts of genetically modified (GM) crop use 1996–2018: impacts on pesticide use and carbon emissions. GM Crops Food. 11(4):215–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2020.1773198
Budak, H., Hussain, B., Khan, Z., Ozturk, N. Z., & Ullah, N. (2015). From genetics to functional genomics: Improvement in drought signalling and tolerance in wheat. Frontiers in Plant Science. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.01012
Carroll, D. (2011). Genome engineering with zinc-finger nucleases. Genetics. Aug;188(4):773-82. doi: 10.1534/genetics.111.131433. PMID: 21828278; PMCID: PMC3176093.
Center for Food Safety (2022). Genetically Engineered Foods and the Environment. https://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/issues/311/ge-foods/ge-food-and-the-environment
Chen, K.Y., Knoepfler, P.S. (2016). To CRISPR and beyond: the evolution of genome editing in stem cells. Regen Med. Dec;11(8):801-816. doi: 10.2217/rme-2016-0107. Epub 2016 Dec 1. PMID: 27905217; PMCID: PMC5221123
Cuhra, M. (2015). Review of GMO safety assessment studies: glyphosate residues in Roundup Ready crops is an ignored issue. Environmental Sciences Europe, 27:20. DOI: 10.1186/s12302 015 0052 7
De Vendômois, J.S., Roullier, F, Cellier, D, Séralini, G.E. (2009). A Comparison of the Effects of Three GM Corn Varieties on Mammalian Health. Int J Biol Sci. 5(7):706–726. doi:10.7150/ijbs.5.706. Available from: https://www.ijbs.com/v05p0706.htm
Deng, H.X., Siddique, T. (2004). Transgenic Mouse Models and Human Neurodegenerative Disorders. JAMA Neurology. DOI: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.2620
Ding, Q., Lee, Y.K., Schaefer, E.A., Peters, D.T., Veres, A., Kim, K., & Cowan, C.A.A (2013). TALEN genome-editing system for generating human stem cell-based disease models. Cell Stem Cell. Feb 7;12(2):238-51. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2012.11.011. Epub 2012 Dec 13. PMID: 23246482; PMCID: PMC3570604
Elshafei, A.A., Ibrahim, E.I., Abdellatif, K.F. et al. (2024). Molecular and agro-morphological characterization of new barley genotypes in arid environments. BMC Biotechnol 24, 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12896-024-00861-6
Environmental Sciences Europe. (2022). Evaluation of adverse effects/events of genetically modified food consumption: a systematic review of animal and human studies. Environmental Sciences Europe, 34, 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00578-9
FAO (2003). Genetically Modified Organisms and the Environment. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/4/x9602e/x9602e07.htm
FAO. (2022). The State of Food and Agriculture: Leveraging agricultural biotechnology for sustainability. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/publications/sofa
Fauser, B.C.J.M., Mannaerts, B.M.J.L., Devroey, P., Leader, A., Boime, I., and Baird, D.T. (2009). Advances in recombinant DNA technology: corifollitropin alfa, a hybrid molecule with sustained follicle-stimulating activity and reduced injection frequency, Human Reproduction Update. 15, no. 3, pp. 309–321, https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmn065
Frewer, L.J., et al. (2013). Public perceptions of agri-food applications of genetic modification – A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 30(2), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2012.12.002
Genes & Nutrition. (2012). The application of GMOs in agriculture and in food production for a better nutrition: two different scientific points of view. Genes & Nutrition, 7, 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12263-012-0316-4
Giddings, L.V. (2020). Genetically modified crops and food security: Assessing the benefits and risks. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, pp. 12–24. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00012
Ginn, S.L., Alexander, I.E., Edelstein, M.L., Abedi, M.R., and Wixon, J. (2013). Gene therapy clinical trials worldwide to 2012—an update, Journal of Gene Medicine. 15, no. 2, pp. 65–77, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgm.2698
Hsu, P.D., Lander, E.S., & Zhang, F. (2014). Development and applications of CRISPR Cas9 for genome engineering. Cell, 157(6), 1262 1278. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.04.015
Jinek, M, Chylinski, K, Fonfara, I, Hauer, M, Doudna, J.A. (2020). Charpentier E. CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing: a review of applications in medicine and agriculture. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 20(3):181–191. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-019-0044-8
Jinek, M., Chylinski, K., Fonfara, I., Hauer, M., Doudna, J. A., & Charpentier, E. (2012). A programmable dual-RNA–guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity. Science, 337(6096), pp. 816–821. DOI: 10.1126/science.1225829
Kathagi, D., & Qaim, M. (2022). Sustainable access of quality seeds of genetically engineered crops in Eastern Africa–Case study of Bt cotton. PMC. DOI: 10.1186/s12889 022 14213 8
Kim, J., & Lee, G. (2021). Patents, ethics, biosafety and regulation using CRISPR technology. Biosafety and Health, 3(4), 175 183. DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2021.09.003
Klumper, W., & Qaim, M. (2014). A meta‐analysis of the impacts of genetically modified crops. PLoS ONE 9(11): e111118. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111118
Lederberg, J. (2003). What the Double Helix (1953) Has Meant for Basic Biomedical Science: A Personal Commentary. JAMA, 289(14), pp. 1715 1718. DOI:10.1001/jama.289.14.1715
Li X, et al. (2017). TALEN-mediated genome editing in human and animal cells. J Gene Med. 19(5): e2984. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgm.2984
Li, J., Manghwar, H., Sun, L., Li, J., Hussain, A., Wang, P., & Zhang, X. (2020). Application of genome editing techniques in plants and recent advances in CRISPR Cas systems. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 18(6), 1519 1534. DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13389
Li, S., et al. (2024). Advances in genetic engineering for biomedical applications. Nature Reviews Genetics, 25(3), 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-023-00602-7
Lomedico, P.T. (1982). Use of recombinant DNA technology to program eukaryotic cells to synthesize rat proinsulin: a rapid expression assay for cloned genes, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 79, no. 19, pp. 5798–5802, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.79.19.5798
Lopes, P.A., Pádua, M.S., & Guil Guerrero, J.L. (2025). An Overview of Transgenic Mouse Models for the Study of Alzheimer’s Disease. Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease, 2(1):2. DOI: 10.3390/jdad2010002
Méndez, C. and Salas, J.A. (2003) On the generation of novel anticancer drugs by recombinant DNA technology: the use of combinatorial biosynthesis to produce novel drugs, Combinatorial Chemistry High Throughput Screening. 6, no. 6, pp. 513–526, https://doi.org/10.2174/138620703106298699
Merten, O. and Gaillet, B. (2016). Viral vectors for gene therapy and gene modification approaches, Biochemical Engineering Journal. 108, pp. 98–115, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2015.09.005
Merten, O.W., Schweizer, M., Chahal, P., and Kamen, A.A. (2014). Manufacturing of viral vectors for gene therapy: part I. Upstream processing, Pharmaceutical Bioprocessing. 2, no. 2, pp. 183–203, https://doi.org/10.4155/pbp.14.16
Metzger, L.E. IV and Raetz, C.R.H., (2009). Purification and characterization of the lipid A disaccharide synthase (LpxB) from Escherichia coli, a peripheral membrane protein, Biochemistry. 48, no. 48, 11559–11571, https://doi.org/10.1021/bi901750f
Nabawy, E.M., Najeeb, Kh., Abdel, Aziz A.A.Kh., Ahmed El-Sheoudy (2024). A. Assessment of Drought Tolerance in Barley Genotypes Through Phenotypical and Molecular Analysis. Arab Universities Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 32(2), 231 248. DOI: 10.21608/AJS.2024.291703.1578
Nie, H., Yang, X., Zheng, S., & Hou, L. (2024). Gene Based Developments in Improving Quality of Tomato: Focus on Firmness, Shelf Life, and Pre and Post Harvest Stress Adaptations. Horticulture, 10(6). DOI: 10.3390/horticulturae10060641
Noack, M., et al. (2025). Next-generation smart GMO technologies for adaptive agriculture. Science, 379(6674), 234–242. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado9340
Paluchowska, P., Śliwka, J., & Yin, Z. (2022). Late blight resistance genes in potato breeding. Planta 256, 44. DOI: 10.1007/s00425 022 03910 6
Pellegrini, M., & Fernandez, A. (2018). Genetic engineering and biotechnology in modern agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 20(3), pp. 567–579, DOI: 10.1016/j.agbio.2018.04.006
Portin, P. & Wilkins, A. (2017). The Evolving Definition of the Term “Gene”. Genetics, 205(4), 1353 1364. DOI: 10.1534/genetics.116.196956
Prakash, D. (2011). Safety issues in genetically modified foods. ISRN Toxicology, 2011, 1–11. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.5402/2011/369573
Qaim, M. (2020). Role of genetically modified crops for food security and sustainable development. Global Food Security, 26, 100339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100339
Raman, R. (2017). The impact of Genetically Modified (GM) crops in modern agriculture: A review. GM Crops & Food, 8[22], 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2017.1413522
Ricroch, A., et al. (2021). Functional genomics and the future of GMO foods. Trends in Biotechnology, 39(11), 1225–1240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2021.02.005
Rivero-Müller A., Lajić S., and Huhtaniemi I. (2007). Assisted large fragment insertion by Red/ET-recombination (ALFIRE)—an alternative and enhanced method for large fragment recombineering, Nucleic Acids Research. 35, no. 10, article e78, https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkm250
Robertson, H.R., & Feng, G. (2011). Annual Research Review: Transgenic mouse models of childhood‐onset psychiatric disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(4):442 475. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469 7610.2011.02380.x
Rogers, C., et al. (2022). Engineering nitrogen-fixing plants: A sustainable solution for agriculture. Nature Biotechnology, 40(4), 504–517. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-021-01026-8
Romeis, J, et al. (2019). Ecological impacts of genetically modified crops on non-target organisms. Environ Sci Eur. 31(36):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-020-00301-0
Singh, J., & Ward, O.P. (2023). Genetically engineered microorganisms for bioremediation. Biotechnology Advances, 62, 108081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108081
Slayton, M.H., Ayala, N., & McDonough, C. W. (2021). Making, cloning, and the expression of human insulin genes in bacteria: The path to Humulin. Endocrine Reviews, 42(3), pp. 374–393. https://doi.org/10.1210/endrev/bnaa029
Tang, G, Qin, J, Dolnikowski, G.G., Russell, R.M., Grusak, M.A. (2009). Golden Rice is an effective source of vitamin A. Am J Clin Nutr. 89(6):1776–1783. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.27119. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/89/6/1776/5481936
Taylor Robinson, A.W., & Rajakaruna, S.S. (2016). Application of recombinant DNA technology (genetically modified organisms) to the advancement of agriculture, medicine, bioremediation and biotechnology industries. Journal of Applied Biotechnology & Bioengineering, 1(3), 78 80. DOI: 10.15406/jabb.2016.01.00013
Tsatsakis, A.M., et al. (2017). Safety evaluation of genetically modified crops and foods. Food Chem Toxicol. 107:519–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2017.07.035
Tsatsakis, A.M., Nawaz, M.A., Kouretas, D., et al. (2017). Environmental impacts of genetically modified plants: A review. Environmental Research, 156, pp. 818 833. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.03.011
Urnov, F.D., Rebar, E.J., Holmes, M.C., Zhang, H.S., Gregory, P.D. (2010). Genome editing with engineered zinc finger nucleases. Nature Reviews Genetics. 11(9), pp. 636–646. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2842
Venter, M. (2007). Synthetic promoters: genetic control through cis engineering, Trends in Plant Science. 12, no. 3, pp. 118–124, 17292658, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2007.01.002
Wei, J., Zhang, W., Li, J., Jin, Y., & Qiu, Z. (2022). Application of the transgenic pig model in biomedical research: A review. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 10:1031812. DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1031812
Xia, Y., Chen, F., Liu, K., Zhang, L., Duan, X., Zhang, X., & Zhu, Z. (2019). Compositional differences between conventional Chinese and genetically modified Roundup Ready soybeans. Crop & Pasture Science, 70(6):526 534. DOI: 10.1071/CP19006
Zhang, Y., et al. (2020). CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome editing for crop improvement. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 71, 659–687. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050718-100309
Zhu, H., & Zhu, J. (2019). Ethical considerations in the application of genetic engineering technologies. Bioethics Review, 43(2), pp. 112–129, DOI: 10.1007/s11017-019-09505-8
Zilberman, D., Holland, T., & Trilnick, I. (2018). Agricultural GMOs — What We Know and Where Scientists Disagree. Sustainability, 10(5), 1514. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051514
https://gmoanswers.com/gmos-medicine-and-pharmaceuticals
https://innovativegenomics.org/crisprpedia/
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mco2.645
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11057861/
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37269466/
https://www.biocompare.com/Editorial-Articles/593658-Applications-of-CRISPR-in-Medicine/
https://www.britannica.com/science/genetic-engineering/additional-info
https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/gmo-crops-animal-food-and-beyond
https://www.genetechnology.gov.au/using-gene-technology/human-health
https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/gene-therapy/about/pac-20384619
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235230422300079X
James, C. (2015). Global status of commercialized biotech/GM crops: 2015. ISAAA Brief No. 51. URL: https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/51/
