Amazon Forests: The Green Lungs of the Earth, Their Future and Protection
Özet
The rapid industrial development of the early 21st century is closely linked to climate change, the biosphere, and ecosystems. The Amazon rainforest is of great global importance due to its exceptional biodiversity, its vital role as a carbon sink, and its contribution to climate regulation. However, over the past 500 years, the Amazon has been suffering from the effects of anthropogenic activities. Anthropogenic activities, such as land clearing for agriculture, are causing the Amazon to shrink dramatically. Deforestation and climate change may have brought the Amazon rainforest to a critical point of death, due to the increase in the length of the dry season and the frequency of droughts. Deforestation in general has a negative impact on people who depend on the forest. Some of the plants distributed in the Amazon are used in both regional and global trade, and are also important as an important source of food and income for people. The conversion of rainforests to agriculture has caused a 17% reduction in the size of the Amazon forest, which extends almost as far as the continental United States. The replacement of dense, humid forest cover with dry grasslands and croplands has led to an increase in local temperatures and a decrease in water evaporation in rainforests. In addition, selective logging further reduces forest cover. It increases vulnerability to fires. The distribution ranges of some plant species are completely changing. Brazil contains 60% of the Amazon basin within its borders, of which approximately 4100000 km2 was covered by forest in 1970. The area of forest cover decreased to 3323000 km2 by 2016, which is approximately 81% of the area covered by forest in 1970.
Referanslar
Albert, J.S.; Carnaval, A.C., Flantua, S.G.A., Lohmann, L.G, Ribas, C.C., Riff, D., Carrillo, J.D. Fan, Y., Figueiredo, J.J.P., Guayasamin, J.M., et al. (2023). Human impacts outpace natural processes in the Amazon. Science 2023, 379, eabo5003
Aleixo, A.L.Q.C. et al. (2019). Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis: the influence of age, number of retinochoroidal lesions and genetic polymorphism for IFN-γ+ 874 T/A as risk factors for recurrence in a survival analysis // PLoS One, v. 14, No, 2. – С. e0211627.
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Aragão, L.E.O.C., Anderson, L.O., Fonseca, M.G., Rosan, T.M., Vedovato, L.B., Wagner, F.H., Silva, C.V.J., Silva Junior, C.H.L., Arai, E., Aguiar, A.P., et al. (2018). 21st Century drought-related fires counteract the decline of Amazon deforestation carbon emissions. Nat. Commun. 9, 536
Armenteras, D., Gonzalez, T., Vargas-Rios, O., Meza-Elizalde, M., Olviveras, I. (2020). Incendios width ecosistemas del norte de southamerica: Advances en la ecología del fuego tropical en Colombia, ecuador y perú. Caldasia, 42, 1–16
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Bandeira, P.N., Pessoa, O.D.L., Trevisan, M.T.S, Lemos, T.L.G. (2002). Metabólitos secondary de Protium heptaphyllum march. Quim. Nova. 25, 1078–1080
Barlow, J., França, F., Gardner, T.A., Hicks, C.C., Lennox, G.D., Berenguer, E., Castello, L., Economo, E.P., Ferreira, J., Guénard, B., Leal, C.G. (2018) The future of hyper diverse tropical ecosystems. Nature 559:517–526
Barlow, J., Lennox, G., Ferreira, J. et al. (2016). Anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests can double biodiversity loss from deforestation. Nature 535, 144–147. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature18326
Blois, J.L., Zarnetske, P.L., Fitzpatrick, M.C., Finnegan, S. (2013) Climate change and the past, present, and future of biotic interactions. Science 341:499–504
Brandão, D.O., Barata, L.E.S., Nobre, I., Nobre, C.A. (2021). The effects of Amazon deforestation on non-timber forest products. Reg. Environ. Chang. 21, 122
Cox, P.M., Betts, R.A., Jones, C.D., Spall, S.A. & Totterdell, I.J. (2000). Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature 408, 184–187
Corrêa, M.P. (1984). Dicionário das plantas usefull do Brasil e das exoticas cultivadas: HL, Volume 4. Ministério da Agricultura, Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 1984
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Evangelista-Vale, J.C., Weihs, M., José-Silva, L., Arruda, R., Sander, N.L., Gomides, S.C., Machado, T.M., Pires-Oliveira, J.C., Barros-Rosa, L., Castuera -Oliveira, L., et al. (2021). Climate change may affect the future of extractivism in the Brazilian Amazon. Biol. Conserv. 257, 109093
Hansen, M.C., Potapov, P.V., Moore, R., Hancher, M., Turubanova, S.A., Tyukavina, A., et al. (2013). High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science 342, 850–853. doi: 10.1126/science.1244693
Hirota, M., Holmgren, M., Van Nes, E.H., Scheffer, M. (2011) Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions. Science 334:232–235
Hooper, E.R.; Ashton, M.S. (2020). Fragmentation reduces community-wide taxonomic and functional diversity of dispersed tree seeds in the Central Amazon. Ecol. Appl. 30, e02093
Hubbell, S.P., He, F., Condit, R., Borda -de- Água, L., Kellner, J., ter Steege, H. (2008). How many tree species are there in the Amazon and how many of them will go extinct. PNAS 105::11498–504
Jimenez, J.C., Marengo, J.A., Alves, L.M., Sulca, J.C., Takahashi, K., Ferrett, S., Collins, M. (2021). The role of ENSO flavors and TNA on recent droughts over Amazon forests and the Northeast Brazil region. Int. J. Climatol. 41, 3761–3780
Lara, C.S., Costa, C.R., Sampaio, P.D.T.B. (2021). O mercado de sementes e mudas de paurosa (Aniba spp.) no Estado do Amazonas. Rev. Econ. Sociol. Rural, 59, e221035
Lenton, T.M. (2008). et al. Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 1786–1793
Magnusson, W.E.; Ishikawa, N.K., Lima, A.P.; Diaz, D.V.; Costa, F.M.; Holland, A.S.S.D.; et al (2016). A linha de véu: a biodiversity Brazilian unknowingly. Parcerias Estratégicas21: 45-60.
Martins, E.C. (1889). Plantas Medicinais de uso na Amazônia. Graficentro/Cejup; Belém, Brazil
Michaletz, S.T., Johnson, E.A. (2007). How forest fires kill trees: A review of the fundamental biophysical processes. Scand. J. For. Res. 22, 500–515
Nobre, C.A., Sellers, P.J., Shukla, J. (1991). Amazonian Deforestation and Regional Climate Change. J. Clim. 4, 957–988
Ometto, J.; Kalaba, G.; Anshari, N.; Chacon, A.; Farrell, S.; Halim, H.; Sukumar, R. (2022). Chapter Paper 7: Tropical Forests. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group ii to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 2369–2410
Ometto, J.P.; Aguiar, A.P.D.; Martinelli, L.A. (2011). Amazon deforestation in Brazil: Effects, drivers and challenges. Carbon Manag. 2, 575–585
Pedrollo, C.T., Kinupp, V.F., Shepard, G., Heinrich, M. (2016). Medicinal plants at Rio Jauaperi, Brazilian Amazon: Ethnobotanical survey and environmental conservation. J. Ethnopharmacol. 186:111–124. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2016.03.055
Pontes-Lopez, A., Silva, C.V.J., Barlow, J., Rincón, L.M., Campanharo, W.A., Nunes, C.A., Almeida, C.T., Silva Junior, C.H.L., Cassol, H.L.G., Dalagnol, R. et al. (2021). Drought-driven wildfire impacts on structure and dynamics in a wet Central Amazonian forest. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 288, 20210094
Sales, L.P., Rodrigues, L., Masiero, R. (2021). Climate change drives spatial mismatch and threatens the biotic interactions of the Brazil nut. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 30, 117–127
Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S, Foley, J.A., Folke, C., Walker, B. (2001) Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591–596
Scoles, R., Canto, M.S., Almeida., R.G., Vieira, D.P. (2016). Sobrevivência e Frutificação de Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. em Areas Desmatadas food Oriximiná, Pará. Floresta Ambient. 23, 555–564
Shanley, P., Luz, L. (2003). The Impacts of Forest Degradation on Medicinal Plant Use and Implications for Health Care in Eastern Amazonia. Bioscience. 53, 573–584
Shanley, P., Luz, L., Swingland, I.R. (2002). The faint promise of a distant market: A survey of Belém's trade in non-timber forest products. Biodivers. Conserv. 11, 615–636
Shanley, P.; Luz, L. (2003). The Impacts of Forest Degradation on Medicinal Plant Use and Implications for Health Care in Eastern Amazonia. Bioscience. 53, 573–584
Slick, J.W.F. et al. (2015). An estimate of the number of tropical tree species //Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol., 112, 24, 7472-7477
Soares-Filho, B.S., Nepstad, D.C., Curran, L.M., Cerqueira, G.C., Garcia, R.A., Ramos, C.A., Voll, E., McDonald, A., Lefebvre, P., Schlesinger, P. (2006). Modeling conservation in the Amazon basin. Nature. 440, 520–523
Stropp, J.; Umbelino, B.; Correia, R.A.; Campos-Silva, J.V.; Ladle, R.J., Malhado, A.C.M. (2020). The ghosts of forests past and future: Deforestation and botanical sampling in the Brazilian Amazon. Ecography. 43, 979–989
Zhai, V., Pirani, P., Connors, A., Péan, S.L., Berger, C., Caud, S., Chen, S., Goldfarb, Y., Gomis, L., M.I., et al., Eds. (2021). Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis; Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Masson-Delmotte, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, in press. IPCC
Zhai, V., Portner, P., Roberts, H.O., Skea, D., Shukla, J., Pirani, P.R., Moufouma-Okia, A., Péan, W., Pidcock, C., et al. (2018). World Meteorological Organization: Geneva, Switzerland. IPCC. Summary for Policymakers. In Global Warming of 1.5 C; An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5 Above Pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty; Masson-Delmotte, 32 pp.
Wieczynski, D.J., Boyle, B., Buzzard, V., Duran, S.M., Henderson, A.N., Hulshof, C.M., Kerkhoff, A.J., McCarthy, M.C., Michaletz, S.T., Swenson, N.G., Asner, G.P. (2019) Climate shapes and shifts functional biodiversity in forests worldwide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 116:587–592
Referanslar
Albert, J.S.; Carnaval, A.C., Flantua, S.G.A., Lohmann, L.G, Ribas, C.C., Riff, D., Carrillo, J.D. Fan, Y., Figueiredo, J.J.P., Guayasamin, J.M., et al. (2023). Human impacts outpace natural processes in the Amazon. Science 2023, 379, eabo5003
Aleixo, A.L.Q.C. et al. (2019). Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis: the influence of age, number of retinochoroidal lesions and genetic polymorphism for IFN-γ+ 874 T/A as risk factors for recurrence in a survival analysis // PLoS One, v. 14, No, 2. – С. e0211627.
Almeida, E.R. (1993). Plantas Medicinais Brasileiras: Conhecimentos Populares e Científicos. 1st ed. Hemus Ltd.; São Paulo, Brazil: 1993
Amusant, N., Digeon, A., Descroix, L., Bruneau, O., Bezard, V., Beauchène, J. (2015). Planting rosewood for sustainable essential oil production: Influence of surrounding forest and seed provenance on tree growth and essential oil yields. Bois For. Trope. 326, 57
Aragão, L.E.O.C., Anderson, L.O., Fonseca, M.G., Rosan, T.M., Vedovato, L.B., Wagner, F.H., Silva, C.V.J., Silva Junior, C.H.L., Arai, E., Aguiar, A.P., et al. (2018). 21st Century drought-related fires counteract the decline of Amazon deforestation carbon emissions. Nat. Commun. 9, 536
Armenteras, D., Gonzalez, T., Vargas-Rios, O., Meza-Elizalde, M., Olviveras, I. (2020). Incendios width ecosistemas del norte de southamerica: Advances en la ecología del fuego tropical en Colombia, ecuador y perú. Caldasia, 42, 1–16
Arneth, A., Barbosa, H., Benton, T., Calvin, K., Calvo, E., Connors, S., Cowie, A., Davin, E., Denton, F., van Diemen, R. (2019) Climate change and land. IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems https://www.ipcc.ch/report/srccl
Bandeira, P.N., Pessoa, O.D.L., Trevisan, M.T.S, Lemos, T.L.G. (2002). Metabólitos secondary de Protium heptaphyllum march. Quim. Nova. 25, 1078–1080
Barlow, J., França, F., Gardner, T.A., Hicks, C.C., Lennox, G.D., Berenguer, E., Castello, L., Economo, E.P., Ferreira, J., Guénard, B., Leal, C.G. (2018) The future of hyper diverse tropical ecosystems. Nature 559:517–526
Barlow, J., Lennox, G., Ferreira, J. et al. (2016). Anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests can double biodiversity loss from deforestation. Nature 535, 144–147. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature18326
Blois, J.L., Zarnetske, P.L., Fitzpatrick, M.C., Finnegan, S. (2013) Climate change and the past, present, and future of biotic interactions. Science 341:499–504
Brandão, D.O., Barata, L.E.S., Nobre, I., Nobre, C.A. (2021). The effects of Amazon deforestation on non-timber forest products. Reg. Environ. Chang. 21, 122
Cox, P.M., Betts, R.A., Jones, C.D., Spall, S.A. & Totterdell, I.J. (2000). Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature 408, 184–187
Corrêa, M.P. (1984). Dicionário das plantas usefull do Brasil e das exoticas cultivadas: HL, Volume 4. Ministério da Agricultura, Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 1984
Dakos, V., Matthews, B., Hendry, A.P., Levine, J., Loeuille, N., Norberg, J., Nosil, P., Scheffer, M., De Meester, L. (2019) Ecosystem tipping points in an evolving world. Nat Ecol Evol 3:355–362
Evangelista-Vale, J.C., Weihs, M., José-Silva, L., Arruda, R., Sander, N.L., Gomides, S.C., Machado, T.M., Pires-Oliveira, J.C., Barros-Rosa, L., Castuera -Oliveira, L., et al. (2021). Climate change may affect the future of extractivism in the Brazilian Amazon. Biol. Conserv. 257, 109093
Hansen, M.C., Potapov, P.V., Moore, R., Hancher, M., Turubanova, S.A., Tyukavina, A., et al. (2013). High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science 342, 850–853. doi: 10.1126/science.1244693
Hirota, M., Holmgren, M., Van Nes, E.H., Scheffer, M. (2011) Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions. Science 334:232–235
Hooper, E.R.; Ashton, M.S. (2020). Fragmentation reduces community-wide taxonomic and functional diversity of dispersed tree seeds in the Central Amazon. Ecol. Appl. 30, e02093
Hubbell, S.P., He, F., Condit, R., Borda -de- Água, L., Kellner, J., ter Steege, H. (2008). How many tree species are there in the Amazon and how many of them will go extinct. PNAS 105::11498–504
Jimenez, J.C., Marengo, J.A., Alves, L.M., Sulca, J.C., Takahashi, K., Ferrett, S., Collins, M. (2021). The role of ENSO flavors and TNA on recent droughts over Amazon forests and the Northeast Brazil region. Int. J. Climatol. 41, 3761–3780
Lara, C.S., Costa, C.R., Sampaio, P.D.T.B. (2021). O mercado de sementes e mudas de paurosa (Aniba spp.) no Estado do Amazonas. Rev. Econ. Sociol. Rural, 59, e221035
Lenton, T.M. (2008). et al. Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 1786–1793
Magnusson, W.E.; Ishikawa, N.K., Lima, A.P.; Diaz, D.V.; Costa, F.M.; Holland, A.S.S.D.; et al (2016). A linha de véu: a biodiversity Brazilian unknowingly. Parcerias Estratégicas21: 45-60.
Martins, E.C. (1889). Plantas Medicinais de uso na Amazônia. Graficentro/Cejup; Belém, Brazil
Michaletz, S.T., Johnson, E.A. (2007). How forest fires kill trees: A review of the fundamental biophysical processes. Scand. J. For. Res. 22, 500–515
Nobre, C.A., Sellers, P.J., Shukla, J. (1991). Amazonian Deforestation and Regional Climate Change. J. Clim. 4, 957–988
Ometto, J.; Kalaba, G.; Anshari, N.; Chacon, A.; Farrell, S.; Halim, H.; Sukumar, R. (2022). Chapter Paper 7: Tropical Forests. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group ii to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 2369–2410
Ometto, J.P.; Aguiar, A.P.D.; Martinelli, L.A. (2011). Amazon deforestation in Brazil: Effects, drivers and challenges. Carbon Manag. 2, 575–585
Pedrollo, C.T., Kinupp, V.F., Shepard, G., Heinrich, M. (2016). Medicinal plants at Rio Jauaperi, Brazilian Amazon: Ethnobotanical survey and environmental conservation. J. Ethnopharmacol. 186:111–124. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2016.03.055
Pontes-Lopez, A., Silva, C.V.J., Barlow, J., Rincón, L.M., Campanharo, W.A., Nunes, C.A., Almeida, C.T., Silva Junior, C.H.L., Cassol, H.L.G., Dalagnol, R. et al. (2021). Drought-driven wildfire impacts on structure and dynamics in a wet Central Amazonian forest. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 288, 20210094
Sales, L.P., Rodrigues, L., Masiero, R. (2021). Climate change drives spatial mismatch and threatens the biotic interactions of the Brazil nut. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 30, 117–127
Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S, Foley, J.A., Folke, C., Walker, B. (2001) Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591–596
Scoles, R., Canto, M.S., Almeida., R.G., Vieira, D.P. (2016). Sobrevivência e Frutificação de Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. em Areas Desmatadas food Oriximiná, Pará. Floresta Ambient. 23, 555–564
Shanley, P., Luz, L. (2003). The Impacts of Forest Degradation on Medicinal Plant Use and Implications for Health Care in Eastern Amazonia. Bioscience. 53, 573–584
Shanley, P., Luz, L., Swingland, I.R. (2002). The faint promise of a distant market: A survey of Belém's trade in non-timber forest products. Biodivers. Conserv. 11, 615–636
Shanley, P.; Luz, L. (2003). The Impacts of Forest Degradation on Medicinal Plant Use and Implications for Health Care in Eastern Amazonia. Bioscience. 53, 573–584
Slick, J.W.F. et al. (2015). An estimate of the number of tropical tree species //Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol., 112, 24, 7472-7477
Soares-Filho, B.S., Nepstad, D.C., Curran, L.M., Cerqueira, G.C., Garcia, R.A., Ramos, C.A., Voll, E., McDonald, A., Lefebvre, P., Schlesinger, P. (2006). Modeling conservation in the Amazon basin. Nature. 440, 520–523
Stropp, J.; Umbelino, B.; Correia, R.A.; Campos-Silva, J.V.; Ladle, R.J., Malhado, A.C.M. (2020). The ghosts of forests past and future: Deforestation and botanical sampling in the Brazilian Amazon. Ecography. 43, 979–989
Zhai, V., Pirani, P., Connors, A., Péan, S.L., Berger, C., Caud, S., Chen, S., Goldfarb, Y., Gomis, L., M.I., et al., Eds. (2021). Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis; Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Masson-Delmotte, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, in press. IPCC
Zhai, V., Portner, P., Roberts, H.O., Skea, D., Shukla, J., Pirani, P.R., Moufouma-Okia, A., Péan, W., Pidcock, C., et al. (2018). World Meteorological Organization: Geneva, Switzerland. IPCC. Summary for Policymakers. In Global Warming of 1.5 C; An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5 Above Pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty; Masson-Delmotte, 32 pp.
Wieczynski, D.J., Boyle, B., Buzzard, V., Duran, S.M., Henderson, A.N., Hulshof, C.M., Kerkhoff, A.J., McCarthy, M.C., Michaletz, S.T., Swenson, N.G., Asner, G.P. (2019) Climate shapes and shifts functional biodiversity in forests worldwide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 116:587–592
