Pediatrik Ürolojide Sık Görülen Sorunlar

Berkowitz GS, Lapinski RH, Dolgin SE, et al. Prevalence and natural history of cryptorchidism. Pediatrics. 1993;92:44–9.

Sijstermans K, Hack WWM, Meijer RW, et al. The frequency of undescended testis from birth to adulthood: A review. Vol. 31, International Journal of Andrology. 2008. p. 1–11.

Virtanen HE, Toppari J. Embryology and physiology of testicular development and descent. Vol. 11 Suppl 2, Pediatric endocrinology reviews : PER. 2014. p. 206–13.

Kaefer M, Diamond D, Hendren WH, et al. The incidence of intersexuality in children with cryptorchidism and hypospadias: Stratification based on gonadal palpability and meatal position. In: Journal of Urology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1999. p. 1003–6.

Kollin C, Ritzén EM. Cryptorchidism: a clinical perspective. Vol. 11 Suppl 2, Pediatric endocrinology reviews : PER. 2014. p. 240–50.

Rusnack SL, Wu HY, Huff DS, et al. The ascending testis and the testis undescended since birth share the same histopathology. Journal of Urology. 2002 Dec;168:2590–1.

Nallikuzhy TJ, Rajasekhar SSSN, Malik S, et al. Variations of the testicular artery and vein: A meta-analysis with proposed classification. Vol. 31, Clinical Anatomy. John Wiley and Sons Inc.; 2018. p. 854–69.

Gao L, Tang D, Gu W. Histopathological Features of Vanishing Testes in 332 Boys: What Is Its Significance? A Retrospective Study From a Tertiary Hospital. Front Pediatr. 2022;10:834083.

Braga LH, Kim S, Farrokhyar F, et al. Is there an optimal contralateral testicular cut-off size that predicts monorchism in boys with nonpalpable testicles? In: Journal of Pediatric Urology. Elsevier Ltd; 2014. p. 693–8.

Hartigan S, Tasian GE. Unnecessary diagnostic imaging: a review of the literature on preoperative imaging for boys with undescended testes. Transl Androl Urol. 2014 Dec;3:359–64.

McEachern R, Houle AM, Garel L, et al. Lost and found testes: The importance of the hCG stimulation test and other testicular markers to confirm a surgical declaration of anorchia. Horm Res. 2004;62:124–8.

Park KH, Lee JH, Han JJ, et al. Histological evidences suggest recommending orchiopexy within the first year of life for children with unilateral inguinal cryptorchid testis. International Journal of Urology. 2007 Jul;14:616–21.

Thorup J, Clasen-Linde E, Li R, et al. Postnatal Germ Cell Development in the Cryptorchid Testis: The Key to Explain Why Early Surgery Decreases the Risk of Malignancy. European Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 2018 Jul;28:469–76.

Foresta MG, David M, David L, et al. Undescended testis: Comparison of two protocols of treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin: Effect on testicular descent and hormonal response. Horm Res Paediatr. 1988;30:198–206.

Schwentner C, Oswald J, Kreczy A, et al. Neoadjuvant gonadotropin-releasing hormone therapy before surgery may improve the fertility index in undescended testes: A prospective randomized trial. In: Journal of Urology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 974–7.

Pyörälä S, Huttunen NP, Uhari M. A review and meta-analysis of hormonal treatment of cryptorchidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1995;80:2795–9.

Hadziselimovic F, Herzog B, Barthold JS. Treatment with a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogue after successful orchiopexy markedly improves the chance of fertility later in life. Journal of Urology. 1997;158:1193–5.

Hagberg S, Westphal O. Treatment of undescended testes with intranasal application of synthetic LH-RH. Eur J Pediatr. 1982 Dec;139:285–8.

Martin Ritzén E. Undescended testes: A consensus on management. In: European Journal of Endocrinology. 2008.

Skott M, Kennedy U, Gnech M, et al. European Association of Urology-European Society of Paediatric Urology Guidelines on Paediatric Urology: Summary of 2024 Updates. Part II. Vol. 88, European Urology. Elsevier B.V.; 2025. p. 190–203.

Kollin C, Karpe B, Hesser U, et al. Surgical Treatment of Unilaterally Undescended Testes: Testicular Growth After Randomization to Orchiopexy at Age 9 Months or 3 Years. Journal of Urology. 2007;178:1589–93.

Ziylan O, Oktar T, Korgali E, et al. Failed orchiopexy: Leading causes and surgical management. Urol Int. 2004;73:313–5.

Prentiss RJ, Weickgenant CJ, Moses JJ, et al. Undescended testis: surgical anatomy of spermatic vessels, spermatic surgical triangles and lateral spermatic ligament. J Urol. 1960 May;83:686–92.

Novaes HFF, Neto JAC, Macedo A, et al. Single scrotal incision orchiopexy - a systematic review. Vol. 39, International Braz J Urol. 2013. p. 305–11.

Cortesi N, Ferrari P, Zambarda E, et al. Diagnosis of Bilateral Abdominal Cryptorchidism by Laparoscopy. Endoscopy. 1976;8:33–4.

Snodgrass WT, Yucel S, Ziada A. Scrotal Exploration for Unilateral Nonpalpable Testis. Journal of Urology. 2007;178:1718–21.

Cisek LJ, Peters CA, Atala A, et al. Current findings in diagnostic laparoscopic evaluation of the nonpalpable testis. In: Journal of Urology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1998. p. 1145–9.

Fowler R, Stephens FD. The Role Of Testicular Vascular Anatomy In The Salvage Of High Undescended Testes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery. 1959;29:92–106.

Elsherbeny M, Abdallah A, Abouzeid A, et al. Staged laparoscopic traction orchiopexy for intra-abdominal testis: Is it always feasible? J Pediatr Urol. 2018 Jun;14:267.e1-267.e4.

Wacksman J, Billmire DA, Lewis AG, et al. Laparoscopically assisted testicular autotransplantation for management of the intra-abdominal undescended testis. Journal of Urology. 1996;156:772–4.

Lee PA. Fertility after cryptorchidism: Epidemiology and other outcome studies. Urology. 2005;66:427–31.

Chua ME, Mendoza JS, Gaston MJ V, et al. Hormonal therapy using gonadotropin releasing hormone for improvement of fertility index among children with cryptorchidism: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Vol. 49, Journal of Pediatric Surgery. W.B. Saunders; 2014. p. 1659–67.

Pettersson A, Richiardi L, Nordenskjold A, et al. Age at surgery for undescended testis and risk of testicular cancer. Vol. 179, Journal of Urology. Elsevier Inc.; 2008. p. 547.

Walsh TJ, Dall’Era MA, Croughan MS, et al. Prepubertal Orchiopexy for Cryptorchidism May be Associated With Lower Risk of Testicular Cancer. Journal of Urology. 2007 Oct;178:1440–6.

Austin PF, Bauer SB, Bower W, et al. The standardization of terminology of lower urinary tract function in children and adolescents: Update report from the standardization committee of the International Children’s Continence Society. Neurourol Urodyn. 2016 Apr;35:471–81.

Butler RJ, Golding J, Northstone K. Nocturnal enuresis at 7.5 years old: Prevalence and analysis of clinical signs. BJU Int. 2005 Aug;96:404–10.

Nevéus T, Läckgren G, Tuvemo T, et al. Enuresis - Background and treatment. Vol. 34, Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology, Supplement. Taylor and Francis A.S.; 2000. p. 1–44.

Negoro H, Kanematsu A, Yoshimura K, et al. Chronobiology of micturition: Putative role of the circadian clock. Vol. 190, Journal of Urology. 2013. p. 843–9.

Jansson E, Nevéus T. Rectal diameter assessment in enuretic children—exploring the association between constipation and bladder function. Ups J Med Sci. 2018 Jul;123:179–82.

Hjälmås K. Urodynamics in normal infants and children. Scand J Urol Nephrol Suppl. 1988;114:20–7.

Hjalmas K, Arnold T, Bower W, et al. Nocturnal enuresis: An international evidence based management strategy. In: Journal of Urology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2004. p. 2545–61.

Sinha R, Raut S. Management of nocturnal enuresis - myths and facts. World J Nephrol. 2016 Jul;5:328–38.

Kosilov K V., Geltser BI, Loparev SA, et al. The optimal duration of alarm therapy use in children with primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis. J Pediatr Urol. 2018 Oct;14:447.e1-447.e6.

Ferrara P, Ianniello F, Vescovo E Del, et al. Oral Desmopressin Lyophilisate Formulation (MELT): Efficacy and safety in children and adults. Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal. 2018;11:171–7.

Sharifiaghdas F, Sharifiaghdas S, Taheri M. Primary Monosymptomatic Nocturnal Enuresis: Monotherapy vs Combination Therapy. Urology. 2016 Jul;93:170–4.

Jørgensen CS, Kamperis K, Borch L, et al. Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation in Children with Monosymptomatic Nocturnal Enuresis: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo Controlled Study. Journal of Urology. 2017 Sep;198:687–93.

Fanos PV, Cataldi PL. Antibiotics or surgery for vesicoureteric reflux in children. Vol. 364, Lancet. Elsevier B.V.; 2004. p. 1720–2.

Lebowitz RL, Olbing H, Parkkulainen K V, et al. International system of radiographic grading of vesicoureteric reflux. Pediatr Radiol. 1985 Feb;15:105–9.

Darge K, Riedmiller H. Current status of vesicoureteral reflux diagnosis. Vol. 22, World Journal of Urology. 2004. p. 88–95.

Gnech M, ’t Hoen L, Zachou A, et al. Update and Summary of the European Association of Urology/European Society of Paediatric Urology Paediatric Guidelines on Vesicoureteral Reflux in Children. Vol. 85, European Urology. Elsevier B.V.; 2024. p. 433–42.

Loukogeorgakis SP, Burnand K, MacDonald A, et al. Renal scarring is the most significant predictor of breakthrough febrile urinary tract infection in patients with simplex and duplex primary vesico-ureteral reflux. J Pediatr Urol. 2020 Apr;16:189.e1-189.e7.

Williams G, Craig JC. Long-term antibiotics for preventing recurrent urinary tract infection in children. Vol. 2019, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2019.

Greenfield SP, Carpenter MA, Chesney RW, et al. The RIVUR voiding cystourethrogram pilot study: Experience with radiologic reading concordance. Journal of Urology. 2012 Oct;188:1608–12.

Dogan HS, Altan M, Citamak B, et al. Factors affecting the success of endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux and comparison of two dextranomer based bulking agents: Does bulking substance matter? J Pediatr Urol. 2015 Apr;11:90.e1-90.e5.

Brandström P, Esbjörner E, Herthelius M, et al. The Swedish Reflux Trial in Children: III. Urinary Tract Infection Pattern. Journal of Urology. 2010 Jul;184:286–91.

Elder JS, Diaz M, Caldamone AA, et al. Endoscopic therapy for vesicoureteral reflux: A meta-analysis. I. reflux resolution and urinary tract infection. Journal of Urology. 2006;175:716–22.

Chapple CR, Wein AJ. Primer on Urology. Primer on Urology. Springer Science+Business Media; 2025. 1–1408 p.

Duckett JW, Walker RD, Weiss R. Surgical results: International Reflux Study in Children - United States branch. In: Journal of Urology. 1992. p. 1674–5.

Grimsby GM, Dwyer ME, Jacobs MA, et al. Multi-institutional review of outcomes of robot-assisted laparoscopic extravesical ureteral reimplantation. Journal of Urology. 2015 May;193:1791–5.

Berkowitz GS, Lapinski RH, Dolgin SE, et al. Prevalence and natural history of cryptorchidism. Pediatrics. 1993;92:44–9.

Sijstermans K, Hack WWM, Meijer RW, et al. The frequency of undescended testis from birth to adulthood: A review. Vol. 31, International Journal of Andrology. 2008. p. 1–11.

Virtanen HE, Toppari J. Embryology and physiology of testicular development and descent. Vol. 11 Suppl 2, Pediatric endocrinology reviews : PER. 2014. p. 206–13.

Kaefer M, Diamond D, Hendren WH, et al. The incidence of intersexuality in children with cryptorchidism and hypospadias: Stratification based on gonadal palpability and meatal position. In: Journal of Urology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1999. p. 1003–6.

Kollin C, Ritzén EM. Cryptorchidism: a clinical perspective. Vol. 11 Suppl 2, Pediatric endocrinology reviews : PER. 2014. p. 240–50.

Rusnack SL, Wu HY, Huff DS, et al. The ascending testis and the testis undescended since birth share the same histopathology. Journal of Urology. 2002 Dec;168:2590–1.

Nallikuzhy TJ, Rajasekhar SSSN, Malik S, et al. Variations of the testicular artery and vein: A meta-analysis with proposed classification. Vol. 31, Clinical Anatomy. John Wiley and Sons Inc.; 2018. p. 854–69.

Gao L, Tang D, Gu W. Histopathological Features of Vanishing Testes in 332 Boys: What Is Its Significance? A Retrospective Study From a Tertiary Hospital. Front Pediatr. 2022;10:834083.

Braga LH, Kim S, Farrokhyar F, et al. Is there an optimal contralateral testicular cut-off size that predicts monorchism in boys with nonpalpable testicles? In: Journal of Pediatric Urology. Elsevier Ltd; 2014. p. 693–8.

Hartigan S, Tasian GE. Unnecessary diagnostic imaging: a review of the literature on preoperative imaging for boys with undescended testes. Transl Androl Urol. 2014 Dec;3:359–64.

McEachern R, Houle AM, Garel L, et al. Lost and found testes: The importance of the hCG stimulation test and other testicular markers to confirm a surgical declaration of anorchia. Horm Res. 2004;62:124–8.

Park KH, Lee JH, Han JJ, et al. Histological evidences suggest recommending orchiopexy within the first year of life for children with unilateral inguinal cryptorchid testis. International Journal of Urology. 2007 Jul;14:616–21.

Thorup J, Clasen-Linde E, Li R, et al. Postnatal Germ Cell Development in the Cryptorchid Testis: The Key to Explain Why Early Surgery Decreases the Risk of Malignancy. European Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 2018 Jul;28:469–76.

Foresta MG, David M, David L, et al. Undescended testis: Comparison of two protocols of treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin: Effect on testicular descent and hormonal response. Horm Res Paediatr. 1988;30:198–206.

Schwentner C, Oswald J, Kreczy A, et al. Neoadjuvant gonadotropin-releasing hormone therapy before surgery may improve the fertility index in undescended testes: A prospective randomized trial. In: Journal of Urology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 974–7.

Pyörälä S, Huttunen NP, Uhari M. A review and meta-analysis of hormonal treatment of cryptorchidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1995;80:2795–9.

Hadziselimovic F, Herzog B, Barthold JS. Treatment with a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogue after successful orchiopexy markedly improves the chance of fertility later in life. Journal of Urology. 1997;158:1193–5.

Hagberg S, Westphal O. Treatment of undescended testes with intranasal application of synthetic LH-RH. Eur J Pediatr. 1982 Dec;139:285–8.

Martin Ritzén E. Undescended testes: A consensus on management. In: European Journal of Endocrinology. 2008.

Skott M, Kennedy U, Gnech M, et al. European Association of Urology-European Society of Paediatric Urology Guidelines on Paediatric Urology: Summary of 2024 Updates. Part II. Vol. 88, European Urology. Elsevier B.V.; 2025. p. 190–203.

Kollin C, Karpe B, Hesser U, et al. Surgical Treatment of Unilaterally Undescended Testes: Testicular Growth After Randomization to Orchiopexy at Age 9 Months or 3 Years. Journal of Urology. 2007;178:1589–93.

Ziylan O, Oktar T, Korgali E, et al. Failed orchiopexy: Leading causes and surgical management. Urol Int. 2004;73:313–5.

Prentiss RJ, Weickgenant CJ, Moses JJ, et al. Undescended testis: surgical anatomy of spermatic vessels, spermatic surgical triangles and lateral spermatic ligament. J Urol. 1960 May;83:686–92.

Novaes HFF, Neto JAC, Macedo A, et al. Single scrotal incision orchiopexy - a systematic review. Vol. 39, International Braz J Urol. 2013. p. 305–11.

Cortesi N, Ferrari P, Zambarda E, et al. Diagnosis of Bilateral Abdominal Cryptorchidism by Laparoscopy. Endoscopy. 1976;8:33–4.

Snodgrass WT, Yucel S, Ziada A. Scrotal Exploration for Unilateral Nonpalpable Testis. Journal of Urology. 2007;178:1718–21.

Cisek LJ, Peters CA, Atala A, et al. Current findings in diagnostic laparoscopic evaluation of the nonpalpable testis. In: Journal of Urology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1998. p. 1145–9.

Fowler R, Stephens FD. The Role Of Testicular Vascular Anatomy In The Salvage Of High Undescended Testes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery. 1959;29:92–106.

Elsherbeny M, Abdallah A, Abouzeid A, et al. Staged laparoscopic traction orchiopexy for intra-abdominal testis: Is it always feasible? J Pediatr Urol. 2018 Jun;14:267.e1-267.e4.

Wacksman J, Billmire DA, Lewis AG, et al. Laparoscopically assisted testicular autotransplantation for management of the intra-abdominal undescended testis. Journal of Urology. 1996;156:772–4.

Lee PA. Fertility after cryptorchidism: Epidemiology and other outcome studies. Urology. 2005;66:427–31.

Chua ME, Mendoza JS, Gaston MJ V, et al. Hormonal therapy using gonadotropin releasing hormone for improvement of fertility index among children with cryptorchidism: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Vol. 49, Journal of Pediatric Surgery. W.B. Saunders; 2014. p. 1659–67.

Pettersson A, Richiardi L, Nordenskjold A, et al. Age at surgery for undescended testis and risk of testicular cancer. Vol. 179, Journal of Urology. Elsevier Inc.; 2008. p. 547.

Walsh TJ, Dall’Era MA, Croughan MS, et al. Prepubertal Orchiopexy for Cryptorchidism May be Associated With Lower Risk of Testicular Cancer. Journal of Urology. 2007 Oct;178:1440–6.

Austin PF, Bauer SB, Bower W, et al. The standardization of terminology of lower urinary tract function in children and adolescents: Update report from the standardization committee of the International Children’s Continence Society. Neurourol Urodyn. 2016 Apr;35:471–81.

Butler RJ, Golding J, Northstone K. Nocturnal enuresis at 7.5 years old: Prevalence and analysis of clinical signs. BJU Int. 2005 Aug;96:404–10.

Nevéus T, Läckgren G, Tuvemo T, et al. Enuresis - Background and treatment. Vol. 34, Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology, Supplement. Taylor and Francis A.S.; 2000. p. 1–44.

Negoro H, Kanematsu A, Yoshimura K, et al. Chronobiology of micturition: Putative role of the circadian clock. Vol. 190, Journal of Urology. 2013. p. 843–9.

Jansson E, Nevéus T. Rectal diameter assessment in enuretic children—exploring the association between constipation and bladder function. Ups J Med Sci. 2018 Jul;123:179–82.

Hjälmås K. Urodynamics in normal infants and children. Scand J Urol Nephrol Suppl. 1988;114:20–7.

Hjalmas K, Arnold T, Bower W, et al. Nocturnal enuresis: An international evidence based management strategy. In: Journal of Urology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2004. p. 2545–61.

Sinha R, Raut S. Management of nocturnal enuresis - myths and facts. World J Nephrol. 2016 Jul;5:328–38.

Kosilov K V., Geltser BI, Loparev SA, et al. The optimal duration of alarm therapy use in children with primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis. J Pediatr Urol. 2018 Oct;14:447.e1-447.e6.

Ferrara P, Ianniello F, Vescovo E Del, et al. Oral Desmopressin Lyophilisate Formulation (MELT): Efficacy and safety in children and adults. Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal. 2018;11:171–7.

Sharifiaghdas F, Sharifiaghdas S, Taheri M. Primary Monosymptomatic Nocturnal Enuresis: Monotherapy vs Combination Therapy. Urology. 2016 Jul;93:170–4.

Jørgensen CS, Kamperis K, Borch L, et al. Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation in Children with Monosymptomatic Nocturnal Enuresis: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo Controlled Study. Journal of Urology. 2017 Sep;198:687–93.

Fanos PV, Cataldi PL. Antibiotics or surgery for vesicoureteric reflux in children. Vol. 364, Lancet. Elsevier B.V.; 2004. p. 1720–2.

Lebowitz RL, Olbing H, Parkkulainen K V, et al. International system of radiographic grading of vesicoureteric reflux. Pediatr Radiol. 1985 Feb;15:105–9.

Darge K, Riedmiller H. Current status of vesicoureteral reflux diagnosis. Vol. 22, World Journal of Urology. 2004. p. 88–95.

Gnech M, ’t Hoen L, Zachou A, et al. Update and Summary of the European Association of Urology/European Society of Paediatric Urology Paediatric Guidelines on Vesicoureteral Reflux in Children. Vol. 85, European Urology. Elsevier B.V.; 2024. p. 433–42.

Loukogeorgakis SP, Burnand K, MacDonald A, et al. Renal scarring is the most significant predictor of breakthrough febrile urinary tract infection in patients with simplex and duplex primary vesico-ureteral reflux. J Pediatr Urol. 2020 Apr;16:189.e1-189.e7.

Williams G, Craig JC. Long-term antibiotics for preventing recurrent urinary tract infection in children. Vol. 2019, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2019.

Greenfield SP, Carpenter MA, Chesney RW, et al. The RIVUR voiding cystourethrogram pilot study: Experience with radiologic reading concordance. Journal of Urology. 2012 Oct;188:1608–12.

Dogan HS, Altan M, Citamak B, et al. Factors affecting the success of endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux and comparison of two dextranomer based bulking agents: Does bulking substance matter? J Pediatr Urol. 2015 Apr;11:90.e1-90.e5.

Brandström P, Esbjörner E, Herthelius M, et al. The Swedish Reflux Trial in Children: III. Urinary Tract Infection Pattern. Journal of Urology. 2010 Jul;184:286–91.

Elder JS, Diaz M, Caldamone AA, et al. Endoscopic therapy for vesicoureteral reflux: A meta-analysis. I. reflux resolution and urinary tract infection. Journal of Urology. 2006;175:716–22.

Chapple CR, Wein AJ. Primer on Urology. Primer on Urology. Springer Science+Business Media; 2025. 1–1408 p.

Duckett JW, Walker RD, Weiss R. Surgical results: International Reflux Study in Children - United States branch. In: Journal of Urology. 1992. p. 1674–5.

Grimsby GM, Dwyer ME, Jacobs MA, et al. Multi-institutional review of outcomes of robot-assisted laparoscopic extravesical ureteral reimplantation. Journal of Urology. 2015 May;193:1791–5.