Gender-Related Challenges of Women Entrepreneurs in Russia
Özet
Women entrepreneurs face many challenges in starting and developing a business, especially in emerging countries. This study examines the current state of women's entrepreneurship in Russia and the main obstacles to its growth, based on academic literature, global and national reports, and a comparative analysis of responses from male and female entrepreneurs using data from the Bank of Russia’s All-Russian Consumer Finance Survey. Results show that despite an increase in women's entrepreneurial activity, persistent barriers continue to hinder their development, so it remains mostly necessity-driven and concentrated in low-profitability, highly competitive sectors. Women entrepreneurs in Russia face financial constraints due to limited access to start-up capital. Gender stereotypes, reinforced by the education system, media, and the professional environment, push women into sectors considered suitable for women. The uneven distribution of family responsibilities restrains business growth and increases business exit. The lack of specialized entrepreneurship courses and low self-confidence, especially in traditionally male-dominated industries, reduces women’s entrepreneurial involvement. A weak institutional environment further complicates business development, while the effectiveness of government support programs remains limited. The results provide a broad overview of the challenges faced by women entrepreneurs in Russia and offer directions for policy implications.
Kadın girişimciler, özellikle gelişmekte olan ülkelerde, iş kurma ve geliştirme konusunda birçok zorlukla karşı karşıya kalmaktadır. Bu çalışma, akademik literatüre, küresel ve ulusal raporlara ve Rusya Merkez Bankası'nın Tüm Rusya Tüketici Finans Anketi'nden elde edilen veriler kullanılarak erkek ve kadın girişimcilerin yanıtlarının karşılaştırmalı analizine dayanarak, Rusya'daki kadın girişimciliğinin mevcut durumunu ve büyümesinin önündeki başlıca engelleri incelemektedir. Sonuçlar, kadın girişimcilik faaliyetlerinde bir artış olmasına rağmen, kalıcı engellerin gelişimlerini engellemeye devam ettiğini, bu nedenle çoğunlukla zorunluluk odaklı ve düşük karlılıklı, yüksek rekabetli sektörlerde yoğunlaştığını göstermektedir. Rusya'daki kadın girişimciler, başlangıç sermayesine sınırlı erişim nedeniyle finansal kısıtlamalarla karşı karşıyadır. Eğitim sistemi, medya ve profesyonel ortam tarafından pekiştirilen cinsiyet kalıpları, kadınları kadınlar için uygun görülen sektörlere itmektedir. Aile sorumluluklarının eşit olmayan dağılımı, işletme büyümesini kısıtlamakta ve işletmeden çıkışları artırmaktadır. Özellikle geleneksel olarak erkek egemen sektörlerde uzmanlaşmış girişimcilik kurslarının eksikliği ve düşük özgüven, kadınların girişimciliğe katılımını azaltmaktadır. Zayıf kurumsal ortam, işletme gelişimini daha da karmaşık hale getirirken, hükümet destek programlarının etkinliği sınırlı kalmaktadır. Sonuçlar, Rusya'daki kadın girişimcilerin karşılaştığı zorluklara dair geniş bir genel bakış sunmakta ve politika uygulamaları için yönlendirmeler sağlamaktadır.
Referanslar
Analiticheskiy tsentr Natsional’nogo agentstva finansovykh issledovaniy (2023). Indeks predprinimatel’skoi aktivnosti zhenshchin WBI-10 [Women’s Entrepreneurial Activity Index WBI-10]. (Accessed on 15/12/2025 from https://womanopora.ru/upload/iblock/df4/df40a639837f54f6b7b1ef5b3b1377fc.pdf).
Andreev AV, Grishchenko VO, Lymar MS, et al. (2024). Faktory formirovaniya inflyatsionnykh ozhidaniy po dannym Rossiyskogo natsional'nogo obsledovaniya finansov potrebiteley [Factors in the formation of inflation expectations as recorded in the Russian National Survey of Consumer Finance]. Ekonomicheskaya politika, 19(5), 54–83. Doi: 10.18288/1994-5124-2024-5-54-83
ASN News (2024). Tol'ko 18% rossiyskikh pap gotovy uyti v dekret vmesto zheny [Only 18% of Russian fathers are willing to take parental leave instead of their wife]. (Accessed on 17/02/2026 from https://www.asn-news.ru/press_release/43529).
Bahmani-Oskooee M, Kutan AM, Xi D. (2012). The impact of economic and monetary uncertainty on the demand for money in emerging economies. Applied Economics, 45(23), 3278–3287. Doi: 10.1080/00036846.2012.705430
Bank of Russia (2022). Monetary Policy Guidelines for 2023–2025. (Accessed on 26/02/2026 from https://www.cbr.ru/eng/about_br/publ/ondkp/on_2023_2025/).
Bank of Russia (2025). All-Russian survey of Consumer Finance [Dataset]. (Accessed on 26/02/2026 from https://www.cbr.ru/eng/ec_research/vserossiyskoe-obsledovanie-domokhozyaystv-po-potrebitel-skim-finansam/).
Baskakova M, & Soboleva I. (2017). The educational potential of Russian employers: The gender aspect. Voprosy Obrazovaniya/Educational Studies Moscow, 4, 83–103. Doi: 10.17323/1814-9545-2017-4-83-103
Baskakova M. E. (2019). Gender asymmetry of small business (on the example of Moscow). The World of New Economy, 13(3), 100–111. Doi: 10.26794/2220-6469-2019-13-3-100-111
Bates T, Jackson WE, & Johnson JH. (2007). Advancing research on minority entrepreneurship. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 613(1), 10–17. Doi: 10.1177/0002716207303405
Biryukova S, & Makarentseva A. (2017). Estimates of the motherhood penalty in Russia. Population and Economics, 1 (1), 50–70. Doi: 10.3897/popecon.1.e36032
Boz M, Martínez-Corts I, & Munduate L. (2015). Types of combined family-to-work conflict and enrichment and subjective health in Spain: A gender perspective. Sex Roles, 74(3–4), 136–153. Doi: 10.1007/s11199-015-0461-5
Brush CG, De Bruin A, & Welter F. (2009). A gender-aware framework for women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1 (1), 8-24. Doi: 10.1108/17566260910942318
Cardella GM, Hernández-Sánchez BR, & Sánchez-García JC. (2020). Women entrepreneurship: A systematic review to outline the boundaries of scientific literature. Frontiers in Psychology, 11:1557. Doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01557
Demidov M, & Kashina M. (2022). Otsenka predprinimatel'nitsami znachimosti resursov i mer gosudarstvennoy podderzhki malogo biznesa (keys Leningradskoy oblasti) [Assessment by women entrepreneurs of the importance of resources and state support measures for small business (case of the Leningrad region)]. The Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology. 25(4): 79-112. Doi: 10.31119/jssa.2022.25.4.4
Federal Corporation for the Development of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (2025). The number of women entrepreneurs in Russia has grown to 1.8 million. (Accessed on 14/02/2026 from https://corpmsp.ru/about/press/news/novosti-korporatsii/kolichestvo-zhenshchin-predprinimateley-v-rossii-vyroslo-do-1-8-mln/).
Federal State Statistics Service (2024). Zhenshchiny i Muzhchiny Rossii [Women and Men of Russia] [Dataset]. (Accessed on 14/02/2026 from https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/210/document/13215).
Federal State Statistics Service (2025). 5.4.1 Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work [Dataset]. (Accessed on 01/02/2026 from https://eng.rosstat.gov.ru/5.4.1).
Federal Tax Service of Russia (2025). Denis Kuz’michev: Bolee 41% predprinimateley v Rossii – Eto zhenshchiny [Denis Kuzmichev: More than 41% of entrepreneurs in Russia are women] [Press release]. (Accessed on 08/02/2026 from https://www.nalog.gov.ru/rn77/news/activities_fts/16007190/).
Fedorchuk KD. (2022). Aspekty gosudarstvennoy podderzhki zhenskoho predprinimatelstva v Rossii: prepyatstviya i vozmozhnosti [Aspects of state support for women’s entrepreneurship in Russia: Obstacles and opportunities]. Economics and Management, 28(4), 404–413. Doi: 10.35854/1998-1627-2022-4-404-413
GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) (2021). GEM 2020/2021 Global Report. (Accessed on 10/02/2026 from https://www.gemconsortium.org/report/gem-20202021-global-report).
GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) (2022). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2021/22 Women’s Entrepreneurship Report: From Crisis to Opportunity. (Accessed on 10/02/2026 from https://www.gemconsortium.org/report/gem-202122-womens-entrepreneurship-report-from-crisis-to-opportunity).
Gimenez-Jimenez D, Edelman LF, Dawson A, et al. (2020). Women entrepreneurs’ progress in the venturing process: The impact of risk aversion and culture. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 1091–1111. Doi: 10.1007/s11187-020-00435-8
Goltz S, Buche MW, & Pathak S. (2015). Political empowerment, rule of law, and women’s entry into entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(3), 605–626. Doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12177
Guzman J, & Kacperczyk A. (2019). Gender gap in entrepreneurship. Research Policy, 48(7), 1666–1680. Doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2019.03.012
Iakovleva T, Solesvik M, & Trifilova A. (2013). Financial availability and government support for women entrepreneurs in transitional economies. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 20(2), 314–340. Doi: 10.1108/14626001311326752
International Monetary Fund (2026). World economic outlook update, January 2026: Global economy: Steady amid divergent forces. (Accessed on 15/02/2026 from https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/issues/2026/01/19/world-economic-outlook-update-january-2026).
Kapustkina EV. (2008). The system of business financing in Russia: The gender aspect. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 5(3/4), 297. Doi: 10.1504/ijesb.2008.017305
Khvatova T, Shchegolev V, & Arvidsson HG. (2025). Understanding gender and cultural challenges in female technology-based entrepreneurship in Russia. Management International, 1–20. Doi: 10.59876/a-196p-xa5s
Kingsbury MA. (2019). Expanding understanding of motherhood penalty: How gaps in family policies contribute to gaps in old-age earnings in Russia. Frontiers in Sociology, 4, 67. Doi: 10.3389/fsoc.2019.00067
Kirkwood J. (2009). Is a lack of self-confidence hindering women entrepreneurs? International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1(2), 118–133. Doi: 10.1108/17566260910969670
Koch LH, Berger ESC, & Kuckertz A. (2025). Gender bias and discrimination towards women entrepreneurs by venture capitalists – a randomized response survey. Venture Capital, 1–27. Doi: 10.1080/13691066.2025.2493049
Levina IA, Kisunko GV, Marques II, et al. (2016). Uncertainty as a factor in investment decisions: The case of the Russian Federation’s regions. World Bank eBooks. (Accessed on 16/02/2026 from Uncertainty as a Factor in Investment Decisions: The Case of the Russian Federation's Regions)
McCracken K, Marquez S, Kwong C, et al. (2015). Women’s entrepreneurship: Closing the gender gap in access to financial and other services and in social entrepreneurship. European Parliament. (Accessed on 16/02/2026 from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=IPOL_STU(2015)519230).
NAFI Research Center (2020). Stereotypes about women and their consequences: On the path to equal opportunities in the digital economy. (Accessed on 16/02/2026 from https://nafi.ru/en/projects/sotsialnoe-razvitie/stereotipy-v-otnoshenii-zhenshchin-i-ikh-posledstviya/).
Naidu S, & Chand A. (2015). National culture, gender inequality and women’s success in micro, small and medium enterprises. Social Indicators Research, 130(2), 647–664. Doi: 10.1007/s11205-015-1203-3
Nechemias C, & Bahry D. (2021). Women entrepreneurs in Russia and other countries: A comparative perspective. Woman in Russian Society, 2, 65–79. Doi: 10.21064/winrs.2021.2.5
Neneh NB. (2018). Family-work conflict and performance of women-owned enterprises: The role of social capital in developing countries—Implications for South Africa and beyond. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), Article 21. (Accessed on 26/02/2026 from https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss6/21).
Noguera M, Alvarez C, & Urbano D. (2013). Socio-cultural factors and female entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9(2), 183–197. Doi: 10.1007/s11365-013-0251-x
OECD & GWEP (2025). Bridging the finance gap for women entrepreneurs: Insights from academic and policy research. OECD Publishing. Doi: 10.1787/75b52972-en
Orhan M, & Scott D. (2001). Why women enter into entrepreneurship: An explanatory model. Women in Management Review, 16(5), 232–247. Doi: 10.1108/09649420110395719
Panda S, & Dash S. (2014). Constraints faced by entrepreneurs in developing countries: A review and assessment. World Review of Entrepreneurship Management and Sustainable Development, 10(4), 405. Doi: 10.1504/wremsd.2014.064951
Panda S. (2018). Constraints faced by women entrepreneurs in developing countries: Review and ranking. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 33(4), 315–331. Doi: 10.1108/gm-01-2017-0003
Raevskaya AA, & Tatarko AN. (2022). The association between family social capital and female entrepreneurship. Psychology in Russia: State of Art, 15(4), 3–20. Doi: 10.11621/pir.2022.0301
Raghuvanshi J, Agrawal R, & Ghosh PK. (2017). Analysis of barriers to women entrepreneurship: The DEMATEL approach. The Journal of Entrepreneurship, 26(2), 220–238. Doi: 10.1177/0971355717708848
RBC (2017). Prezident podpisal zakon o dekriminalizatsii poboev v semye [Putin signed the law on the decriminalization of domestic battery]. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://www.rbc.ru/politics/07/02/2017/5899de8e9a79479489b2cd98).
Roshchin S, & Yemelina N. (2022). Meta-analysis of the gender pay gap in Russia. Higher School of Economics Economic Journal, 26(2), 213–239. Doi: 10.17323/1813-8691-2022-26-2-213-239
Salmenniemi S, Karhunen P, & Kosonen R. (2011). Between business and byt: Experiences of women entrepreneurs in contemporary Russia. Europe-Asia Studies, 63(1), 77–98. Doi: 10.1080/09668136.2011.534304
Sätre A. (2016). Women’s entrepreneurship in Russia: Impacts from the Soviet system. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, 10(1), 53–69. Doi: 10.1108/jec-08-2015-0045
Sätre A. (2023). Women’s agency during the conservative wave in Russian social policy. In Sustainable Development Goals Series (pp. 339–357). Doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-38066-2_16
Sheresheva MY, & Vladimirov YL. (2025). Women entrepreneurs in small and medium businesses in Russia and Kazakhstan: Do family ties help? Population and Economics, 9(1), 173–195. Doi: 10.3897/popecon.9.e132173
Szerb L, Trumbull WN. (2018). Entrepreneurship development in Russia: Is Russia a normal country? An empirical analysis. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 25(6), 902–929. Doi: 10.1108/jsbed-01-2018-0033
Tabachnikova O, & Vinokurova N. (2024). Entrepreneurship as career choice of Russian students: The role of university education, cultural traditions, and gender stereotypes. Entrepreneurship Education, 7(2), 135–153. Doi: 10.1007/s41959-024-00118-5
Taranukha YuV. (2024). Zhenskoe predprinimatel’stvo v Rossii: sostoianie i tendentsii [Women’s entrepreneurship in Russia: Status and trends]. Zhenshchina v rossiiskom obshchestve, (3), 39–63. Doi: 10.21064/WinRS.2024.3.3
TASS (2025). V Rossii v otpuske po ukhody za rebenkom nakhodyatsya pochti 180 tys. muzhchin [In Russia, almost 180,000 men are on parental leave]. TASS Russian News Agency. (Accessed on 14/02/2026 from https://tass.ru/obschestvo/25375245).
Tovar-García ED. (2025). Factors contributing to the relatively low gender gap in entrepreneurship in Russia. Changing Societies & Personalities, 9(1), 218–241. Doi: 10.15826/csp.2025.9.1.325
UN Women Data Hub (2023). Forecasting time spent in unpaid care and domestic work. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://data.unwomen.org/publications/forecasting-time-spent-unpaid-care-and-domestic-work).
United Nations (n.d.). Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. United Nations. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/).
United Nations Statistics Division (n.d.). Time use data and metadata. United Nations. (Accessed on 14/02/2026 from https://unstats.un.org/UNSDWebsite/demographic-social/time-use/data-and-metadata).
Uskova A, Iangiboeva N, Shirokova G, et al. (2026). Narrowing the gender gap in youth entrepreneurship in Russia: The role of university education and environment. Equality Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal. 45(1). 43-63. Doi: 10.1108/edi-03-2024-0102
VCIOM (2024). Predprinimatel'stvo: monitoring [Entrepreneurship: Monitoring]. VCIOM News. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://wciom.ru/analytical-reviews/analiticheskii-obzor/predprinimatelstvo-monitoring).
Webb JW, Khoury TA, & Hitt MA. (2019). The influence of formal and informal institutional voids on entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 44(3), 504–526. Doi: 10.1177/1042258719830310
Wieland AM, Kemmelmeier M, Gupta VK, et al. (2018). Gendered cognitions: A socio-cognitive model of how gender affects entrepreneurial preferences. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 31(3–4), 178–197. Doi: 10.1080/08985626.2018.1551787
World Bank (2025a). Worldwide Governance Indicators [Dataset]. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from http://www.govindicators.org/).
World Bank (2025b). There is legislation specifically addressing domestic violence (SG-LEG-DVAW). World Bank Gender Data Portal. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/indicator/sg-leg-dvaw#idRelatedIndicators).
Wu J, Li Y, & Zhang D. (2019). Identifying women’s entrepreneurial barriers and empowering female entrepreneurship worldwide: A fuzzy-set QCA approach. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 15(3), 905–928. Doi: 10.1007/s11365-019-00570-z
Yang T, Kacperczyk A, & Naldi L. (2023). The motherhood wage penalty and female entrepreneurship. Organization Science, 35(1), 27–51. Doi: 10.1287/orsc.2023.1657
Referanslar
Analiticheskiy tsentr Natsional’nogo agentstva finansovykh issledovaniy (2023). Indeks predprinimatel’skoi aktivnosti zhenshchin WBI-10 [Women’s Entrepreneurial Activity Index WBI-10]. (Accessed on 15/12/2025 from https://womanopora.ru/upload/iblock/df4/df40a639837f54f6b7b1ef5b3b1377fc.pdf).
Andreev AV, Grishchenko VO, Lymar MS, et al. (2024). Faktory formirovaniya inflyatsionnykh ozhidaniy po dannym Rossiyskogo natsional'nogo obsledovaniya finansov potrebiteley [Factors in the formation of inflation expectations as recorded in the Russian National Survey of Consumer Finance]. Ekonomicheskaya politika, 19(5), 54–83. Doi: 10.18288/1994-5124-2024-5-54-83
ASN News (2024). Tol'ko 18% rossiyskikh pap gotovy uyti v dekret vmesto zheny [Only 18% of Russian fathers are willing to take parental leave instead of their wife]. (Accessed on 17/02/2026 from https://www.asn-news.ru/press_release/43529).
Bahmani-Oskooee M, Kutan AM, Xi D. (2012). The impact of economic and monetary uncertainty on the demand for money in emerging economies. Applied Economics, 45(23), 3278–3287. Doi: 10.1080/00036846.2012.705430
Bank of Russia (2022). Monetary Policy Guidelines for 2023–2025. (Accessed on 26/02/2026 from https://www.cbr.ru/eng/about_br/publ/ondkp/on_2023_2025/).
Bank of Russia (2025). All-Russian survey of Consumer Finance [Dataset]. (Accessed on 26/02/2026 from https://www.cbr.ru/eng/ec_research/vserossiyskoe-obsledovanie-domokhozyaystv-po-potrebitel-skim-finansam/).
Baskakova M, & Soboleva I. (2017). The educational potential of Russian employers: The gender aspect. Voprosy Obrazovaniya/Educational Studies Moscow, 4, 83–103. Doi: 10.17323/1814-9545-2017-4-83-103
Baskakova M. E. (2019). Gender asymmetry of small business (on the example of Moscow). The World of New Economy, 13(3), 100–111. Doi: 10.26794/2220-6469-2019-13-3-100-111
Bates T, Jackson WE, & Johnson JH. (2007). Advancing research on minority entrepreneurship. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 613(1), 10–17. Doi: 10.1177/0002716207303405
Biryukova S, & Makarentseva A. (2017). Estimates of the motherhood penalty in Russia. Population and Economics, 1 (1), 50–70. Doi: 10.3897/popecon.1.e36032
Boz M, Martínez-Corts I, & Munduate L. (2015). Types of combined family-to-work conflict and enrichment and subjective health in Spain: A gender perspective. Sex Roles, 74(3–4), 136–153. Doi: 10.1007/s11199-015-0461-5
Brush CG, De Bruin A, & Welter F. (2009). A gender-aware framework for women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1 (1), 8-24. Doi: 10.1108/17566260910942318
Cardella GM, Hernández-Sánchez BR, & Sánchez-García JC. (2020). Women entrepreneurship: A systematic review to outline the boundaries of scientific literature. Frontiers in Psychology, 11:1557. Doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01557
Demidov M, & Kashina M. (2022). Otsenka predprinimatel'nitsami znachimosti resursov i mer gosudarstvennoy podderzhki malogo biznesa (keys Leningradskoy oblasti) [Assessment by women entrepreneurs of the importance of resources and state support measures for small business (case of the Leningrad region)]. The Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology. 25(4): 79-112. Doi: 10.31119/jssa.2022.25.4.4
Federal Corporation for the Development of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (2025). The number of women entrepreneurs in Russia has grown to 1.8 million. (Accessed on 14/02/2026 from https://corpmsp.ru/about/press/news/novosti-korporatsii/kolichestvo-zhenshchin-predprinimateley-v-rossii-vyroslo-do-1-8-mln/).
Federal State Statistics Service (2024). Zhenshchiny i Muzhchiny Rossii [Women and Men of Russia] [Dataset]. (Accessed on 14/02/2026 from https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/210/document/13215).
Federal State Statistics Service (2025). 5.4.1 Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work [Dataset]. (Accessed on 01/02/2026 from https://eng.rosstat.gov.ru/5.4.1).
Federal Tax Service of Russia (2025). Denis Kuz’michev: Bolee 41% predprinimateley v Rossii – Eto zhenshchiny [Denis Kuzmichev: More than 41% of entrepreneurs in Russia are women] [Press release]. (Accessed on 08/02/2026 from https://www.nalog.gov.ru/rn77/news/activities_fts/16007190/).
Fedorchuk KD. (2022). Aspekty gosudarstvennoy podderzhki zhenskoho predprinimatelstva v Rossii: prepyatstviya i vozmozhnosti [Aspects of state support for women’s entrepreneurship in Russia: Obstacles and opportunities]. Economics and Management, 28(4), 404–413. Doi: 10.35854/1998-1627-2022-4-404-413
GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) (2021). GEM 2020/2021 Global Report. (Accessed on 10/02/2026 from https://www.gemconsortium.org/report/gem-20202021-global-report).
GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) (2022). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2021/22 Women’s Entrepreneurship Report: From Crisis to Opportunity. (Accessed on 10/02/2026 from https://www.gemconsortium.org/report/gem-202122-womens-entrepreneurship-report-from-crisis-to-opportunity).
Gimenez-Jimenez D, Edelman LF, Dawson A, et al. (2020). Women entrepreneurs’ progress in the venturing process: The impact of risk aversion and culture. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 1091–1111. Doi: 10.1007/s11187-020-00435-8
Goltz S, Buche MW, & Pathak S. (2015). Political empowerment, rule of law, and women’s entry into entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(3), 605–626. Doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12177
Guzman J, & Kacperczyk A. (2019). Gender gap in entrepreneurship. Research Policy, 48(7), 1666–1680. Doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2019.03.012
Iakovleva T, Solesvik M, & Trifilova A. (2013). Financial availability and government support for women entrepreneurs in transitional economies. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 20(2), 314–340. Doi: 10.1108/14626001311326752
International Monetary Fund (2026). World economic outlook update, January 2026: Global economy: Steady amid divergent forces. (Accessed on 15/02/2026 from https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/issues/2026/01/19/world-economic-outlook-update-january-2026).
Kapustkina EV. (2008). The system of business financing in Russia: The gender aspect. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 5(3/4), 297. Doi: 10.1504/ijesb.2008.017305
Khvatova T, Shchegolev V, & Arvidsson HG. (2025). Understanding gender and cultural challenges in female technology-based entrepreneurship in Russia. Management International, 1–20. Doi: 10.59876/a-196p-xa5s
Kingsbury MA. (2019). Expanding understanding of motherhood penalty: How gaps in family policies contribute to gaps in old-age earnings in Russia. Frontiers in Sociology, 4, 67. Doi: 10.3389/fsoc.2019.00067
Kirkwood J. (2009). Is a lack of self-confidence hindering women entrepreneurs? International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1(2), 118–133. Doi: 10.1108/17566260910969670
Koch LH, Berger ESC, & Kuckertz A. (2025). Gender bias and discrimination towards women entrepreneurs by venture capitalists – a randomized response survey. Venture Capital, 1–27. Doi: 10.1080/13691066.2025.2493049
Levina IA, Kisunko GV, Marques II, et al. (2016). Uncertainty as a factor in investment decisions: The case of the Russian Federation’s regions. World Bank eBooks. (Accessed on 16/02/2026 from Uncertainty as a Factor in Investment Decisions: The Case of the Russian Federation's Regions)
McCracken K, Marquez S, Kwong C, et al. (2015). Women’s entrepreneurship: Closing the gender gap in access to financial and other services and in social entrepreneurship. European Parliament. (Accessed on 16/02/2026 from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=IPOL_STU(2015)519230).
NAFI Research Center (2020). Stereotypes about women and their consequences: On the path to equal opportunities in the digital economy. (Accessed on 16/02/2026 from https://nafi.ru/en/projects/sotsialnoe-razvitie/stereotipy-v-otnoshenii-zhenshchin-i-ikh-posledstviya/).
Naidu S, & Chand A. (2015). National culture, gender inequality and women’s success in micro, small and medium enterprises. Social Indicators Research, 130(2), 647–664. Doi: 10.1007/s11205-015-1203-3
Nechemias C, & Bahry D. (2021). Women entrepreneurs in Russia and other countries: A comparative perspective. Woman in Russian Society, 2, 65–79. Doi: 10.21064/winrs.2021.2.5
Neneh NB. (2018). Family-work conflict and performance of women-owned enterprises: The role of social capital in developing countries—Implications for South Africa and beyond. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), Article 21. (Accessed on 26/02/2026 from https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss6/21).
Noguera M, Alvarez C, & Urbano D. (2013). Socio-cultural factors and female entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9(2), 183–197. Doi: 10.1007/s11365-013-0251-x
OECD & GWEP (2025). Bridging the finance gap for women entrepreneurs: Insights from academic and policy research. OECD Publishing. Doi: 10.1787/75b52972-en
Orhan M, & Scott D. (2001). Why women enter into entrepreneurship: An explanatory model. Women in Management Review, 16(5), 232–247. Doi: 10.1108/09649420110395719
Panda S, & Dash S. (2014). Constraints faced by entrepreneurs in developing countries: A review and assessment. World Review of Entrepreneurship Management and Sustainable Development, 10(4), 405. Doi: 10.1504/wremsd.2014.064951
Panda S. (2018). Constraints faced by women entrepreneurs in developing countries: Review and ranking. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 33(4), 315–331. Doi: 10.1108/gm-01-2017-0003
Raevskaya AA, & Tatarko AN. (2022). The association between family social capital and female entrepreneurship. Psychology in Russia: State of Art, 15(4), 3–20. Doi: 10.11621/pir.2022.0301
Raghuvanshi J, Agrawal R, & Ghosh PK. (2017). Analysis of barriers to women entrepreneurship: The DEMATEL approach. The Journal of Entrepreneurship, 26(2), 220–238. Doi: 10.1177/0971355717708848
RBC (2017). Prezident podpisal zakon o dekriminalizatsii poboev v semye [Putin signed the law on the decriminalization of domestic battery]. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://www.rbc.ru/politics/07/02/2017/5899de8e9a79479489b2cd98).
Roshchin S, & Yemelina N. (2022). Meta-analysis of the gender pay gap in Russia. Higher School of Economics Economic Journal, 26(2), 213–239. Doi: 10.17323/1813-8691-2022-26-2-213-239
Salmenniemi S, Karhunen P, & Kosonen R. (2011). Between business and byt: Experiences of women entrepreneurs in contemporary Russia. Europe-Asia Studies, 63(1), 77–98. Doi: 10.1080/09668136.2011.534304
Sätre A. (2016). Women’s entrepreneurship in Russia: Impacts from the Soviet system. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, 10(1), 53–69. Doi: 10.1108/jec-08-2015-0045
Sätre A. (2023). Women’s agency during the conservative wave in Russian social policy. In Sustainable Development Goals Series (pp. 339–357). Doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-38066-2_16
Sheresheva MY, & Vladimirov YL. (2025). Women entrepreneurs in small and medium businesses in Russia and Kazakhstan: Do family ties help? Population and Economics, 9(1), 173–195. Doi: 10.3897/popecon.9.e132173
Szerb L, Trumbull WN. (2018). Entrepreneurship development in Russia: Is Russia a normal country? An empirical analysis. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 25(6), 902–929. Doi: 10.1108/jsbed-01-2018-0033
Tabachnikova O, & Vinokurova N. (2024). Entrepreneurship as career choice of Russian students: The role of university education, cultural traditions, and gender stereotypes. Entrepreneurship Education, 7(2), 135–153. Doi: 10.1007/s41959-024-00118-5
Taranukha YuV. (2024). Zhenskoe predprinimatel’stvo v Rossii: sostoianie i tendentsii [Women’s entrepreneurship in Russia: Status and trends]. Zhenshchina v rossiiskom obshchestve, (3), 39–63. Doi: 10.21064/WinRS.2024.3.3
TASS (2025). V Rossii v otpuske po ukhody za rebenkom nakhodyatsya pochti 180 tys. muzhchin [In Russia, almost 180,000 men are on parental leave]. TASS Russian News Agency. (Accessed on 14/02/2026 from https://tass.ru/obschestvo/25375245).
Tovar-García ED. (2025). Factors contributing to the relatively low gender gap in entrepreneurship in Russia. Changing Societies & Personalities, 9(1), 218–241. Doi: 10.15826/csp.2025.9.1.325
UN Women Data Hub (2023). Forecasting time spent in unpaid care and domestic work. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://data.unwomen.org/publications/forecasting-time-spent-unpaid-care-and-domestic-work).
United Nations (n.d.). Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. United Nations. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/).
United Nations Statistics Division (n.d.). Time use data and metadata. United Nations. (Accessed on 14/02/2026 from https://unstats.un.org/UNSDWebsite/demographic-social/time-use/data-and-metadata).
Uskova A, Iangiboeva N, Shirokova G, et al. (2026). Narrowing the gender gap in youth entrepreneurship in Russia: The role of university education and environment. Equality Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal. 45(1). 43-63. Doi: 10.1108/edi-03-2024-0102
VCIOM (2024). Predprinimatel'stvo: monitoring [Entrepreneurship: Monitoring]. VCIOM News. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://wciom.ru/analytical-reviews/analiticheskii-obzor/predprinimatelstvo-monitoring).
Webb JW, Khoury TA, & Hitt MA. (2019). The influence of formal and informal institutional voids on entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 44(3), 504–526. Doi: 10.1177/1042258719830310
Wieland AM, Kemmelmeier M, Gupta VK, et al. (2018). Gendered cognitions: A socio-cognitive model of how gender affects entrepreneurial preferences. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 31(3–4), 178–197. Doi: 10.1080/08985626.2018.1551787
World Bank (2025a). Worldwide Governance Indicators [Dataset]. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from http://www.govindicators.org/).
World Bank (2025b). There is legislation specifically addressing domestic violence (SG-LEG-DVAW). World Bank Gender Data Portal. (Accessed on 12/02/2026 from https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/indicator/sg-leg-dvaw#idRelatedIndicators).
Wu J, Li Y, & Zhang D. (2019). Identifying women’s entrepreneurial barriers and empowering female entrepreneurship worldwide: A fuzzy-set QCA approach. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 15(3), 905–928. Doi: 10.1007/s11365-019-00570-z
Yang T, Kacperczyk A, & Naldi L. (2023). The motherhood wage penalty and female entrepreneurship. Organization Science, 35(1), 27–51. Doi: 10.1287/orsc.2023.1657
