The Secondary Positioning of Fatherhood: A Theoretical, Structural, and Family Systems Perspective
Özet
Bu çalışma, babalığın ebeveynlik rolleri içinde ikincil konumlanışının kuramsal, yapısal ve aile sistemi bağlamındaki temellerini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Ebeveynlik çalışmalarının tarihsel gelişimi incelendiğinde, alanın önemli ölçüde annelik deneyimi üzerinden şekillendiği; babalığın ise çoğu zaman tamamlayıcı, sağlayıcı ya da dolaylı bir ebeveyn rolü olarak kavramsallaştırıldığı görülmektedir. Bu durum, bakım emeğinin toplumsal cinsiyet temelli iş bölümü içinde yapılandırılması, kültürel normlar, çalışma hayatının örgütlenmesi ve sosyal politika düzenlemeleri gibi yapısal faktörlerle yakından ilişkilidir. Dolayısıyla babalığın ikincil konumu, bireysel tercihlerden ziyade kuramsal kabuller, kültürel normlar ve yapısal koşulların kesişiminde ortaya çıkan sistemik bir örüntü olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Çalışmada öncelikle ebeveynlik literatürünün kuramsal gelişimi ve bu literatürün toplumsal cinsiyet temelli yapısı ele alınmakta; ardından babalık rollerinin tarihsel dönüşümü ve baba katılımına ilişkin kuramsal yaklaşımlar incelenmektedir. Türkiye bağlamındaki araştırma bulguları doğrultusunda babalığın güncel konumu değerlendirilmektedir. Ayrıca babalığın ikincil konumunun aile sistemi üzerindeki etkileri; ebeveyn alt sisteminde rol ve sorumluluk dağılımı, bakım emeği ve zihinsel yükün paylaşımı, eş ebeveynlik dinamikleri ve çocukların toplumsal cinsiyet rollerine ilişkin sosyalizasyon süreçleri bağlamında tartışılmaktadır.
This study examines the secondary positioning of fatherhood within parenting roles from theoretical, structural, and family systems perspectives. A historical review of parenting research indicates that the field has been shaped largely by the experiences of motherhood, while fatherhood has often been conceptualized as a complementary, provider-oriented, or indirect parenting role. This pattern is closely related to structural factors such as the gendered division of care work, cultural norms, the organization of working life, and social policy arrangements. Accordingly, the secondary positioning of fatherhood can be understood as a systemic pattern emerging at the intersection of theoretical assumptions, cultural norms, and structural conditions rather than as a result of individual preferences. The chapter first reviews the theoretical development of the parenting literature and highlights its gendered foundations. It then discusses the historical transformation of fatherhood roles and theoretical approaches to father involvement. Drawing on research conducted in Türkiye, the contemporary positioning of fatherhood is evaluated. In addition, the implications of this secondary positioning for the family system are examined in terms of the distribution of roles within the parental subsystem, the unequal allocation of care work and mental load, coparenting dynamics, and children’s gender role socialization.
Referanslar
Abell, S., & Schwartz, D. (1999). Fatherhood as a growth experience: Expanding humanistic theories of paternity. The Humanistic Psychologist, 27(2), 221-241.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Akçınar, B. (2017). Türkiye’de babalığı anlamak serisi I: Türkiye'de ilgili babalık ve belirleyicileri: Ana rapor. Anne Çocuk Eğitim Vakfı.
Allen, S. M., & Hawkins, A. J. (1999). Maternal gatekeeping: Mothers' beliefs and behaviors that inhibit greater father involvement in family work. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(1), 199-212. https://doi.org/10.2307/353894
Amato, P. R., & Rivera, F. (1999). Paternal involvement and children’s behavior problems. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61(2), 375-384. https://doi.org/10.2307/353755
Aydoğdu, F., & Dilekmen, M. (2016). Ebeveyn tutumlarının çeşitli değişkenler açısından değerlendirilmesi. Bayburt Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(2). 569-585.
Baldwin, A. L. (1948). Socialization and the parent–child relationship. Child Development, 19(3), 127-136.
Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67(6), 3296-3319.
Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37(4), 887-907.
Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75(1), 43-88.
Baumrind, D. (1971a). Harmonious parents and their preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 4(1), 99-102.
Baumrind, D. (1971b). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1), 1-103
Baumrind, D. (1980). New directions in socialization research. American Psychologist, 35(7), 639.
Baumrind, D. (1996). The discipline controversy revisited. Family Relations, 45, 405-414.
Baumrind, D. (2005). Patterns of parental authority and adolescent autonomy. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 108, 61-69.
Beauvoir, S. de. (2019). İkinci cinsiyet (G. Savran, Trans.). Koç Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Belli, M., Akçay, N., & Bal Yılmaz, H. (2021). Geçmişten günümüze değişen babalık rolü ve çocuk gelişimine katkıları. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8(2), 366-371. https://doi.org/10.34087/cbusbed.806798
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55(1), 83-96.
Bianchi, S. M., Sayer, L. C., Milkie, M. A., & Robinson, J. P. (2012). Housework: Who did, does, or will do it, and how much does it matter? Social Forces, 91(1), 55-63. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sos120
Bozok, M. (2018). Türkiye’de babalığı anlamak serisi II: Ebeveynlik, erkeklik ve çalışma hayatı arasında Türkiye'de babalık. Anne Çocuk Eğitim Vakfı.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
Brown, G. L., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & Neff, C. (2012). Father involvement, paternal sensitivity, and father–child attachment security in the first 3 years. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(3), 421-430.
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713.
Cabrera, N. J., Tamis-LeMonda, S., Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S., & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Development, 71, 127-136.
Cabrera, N. J., Volling, B. L., & Barr, R. (2018). Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children's development. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 152-157.
Craig, L., & Mullan, K. (2011). How mothers and fathers share childcare: A cross-national time-use comparison. American Sociological Review, 76(6), 834861.
Cunningham, M. (2001). The influence of parental attitudes and behaviors on children's attitudes toward gender and household labor in early adulthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 111122.
Daminger, A. (2019). The cognitive dimension of household labor. American Sociological Review, 84(4), 609633.
Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113(3), 487496.
Doherty, W. J., Kouneski, E. F., & Erickson, M. F. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(2), 277292.
Donithen, R., & Schoppe-Sullivan, S. (2022). Correlates and predictors of parenting self-efficacy in new fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 36(3), 396405.
Doucet, A. (2016). The ethics of care and the radical potential of fathers “home alone on leave.” In Comparative perspectives on work–life balance and gender equality (pp. 11–28). Springer.
Doucet, A., & Lee, R. (2014). Fathering, feminism(s), gender, and sexualities: Connections, tensions, and new pathways. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6(4), 355373.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. Norton.
Erzeybek, B., & Çifci, E. (2019). Akademisyen kadınların toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri ve evlilik uyumu. Sosyal Çalışma Dergisi, 3(1), 61-80.
Farré, L., & Vella, F. (2013). The intergenerational transmission of gender role attitudes and its implications for female labour force participation. Economica, 80, 219247.
Feinberg, M. E. (2003). The internal structure and ecological context of coparenting. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3(2), 95131.
Field, T. (1978). Interaction behaviors of primary versus secondary caretaker fathers. Developmental Psychology, 14(2), 183184.
Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2003). The role of father involvement in children's later mental health. Journal of Adolescence, 26(1), 63-78.
Gornick, J. C., & Meyers, M. K. (2003). Families that work: Policies for reconciling parenthood and employment. Russell Sage Foundation.
Grusec, J. E., Goodnow, J. J., & Kuczynski, L. (2000). New directions in analyses of parenting contributions to children's acquisition of values. Child Development, 71(1), 205-211.
Grusec, J. E., & Ungerer, J. (2003). Effective socialization as problem solving and the role of parenting cognitions. In L. Kuczynski (Ed.), Handbook of dynamics in parent–child relations (pp. 211-228). SAGE.
Gültekin Akduman, G., & Türkoğlu, D. (2015). Okul öncesi dönem çocuğu olan babaların babalık rolü algısı ile çocuklarının sosyal becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Karadeniz Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(3), 224-241.
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Hofferth, S. L., Pleck, J. H., Goldscheider, F., Curtin, S., & Hrapczynski, K. (2013). Family structure and men's motivation for parenthood in the United States. In N. J. Cabrera & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement (pp. 57-80). Routledge.
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Referanslar
Abell, S., & Schwartz, D. (1999). Fatherhood as a growth experience: Expanding humanistic theories of paternity. The Humanistic Psychologist, 27(2), 221-241.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Akçınar, B. (2017). Türkiye’de babalığı anlamak serisi I: Türkiye'de ilgili babalık ve belirleyicileri: Ana rapor. Anne Çocuk Eğitim Vakfı.
Allen, S. M., & Hawkins, A. J. (1999). Maternal gatekeeping: Mothers' beliefs and behaviors that inhibit greater father involvement in family work. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(1), 199-212. https://doi.org/10.2307/353894
Amato, P. R., & Rivera, F. (1999). Paternal involvement and children’s behavior problems. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61(2), 375-384. https://doi.org/10.2307/353755
Aydoğdu, F., & Dilekmen, M. (2016). Ebeveyn tutumlarının çeşitli değişkenler açısından değerlendirilmesi. Bayburt Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(2). 569-585.
Baldwin, A. L. (1948). Socialization and the parent–child relationship. Child Development, 19(3), 127-136.
Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67(6), 3296-3319.
Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37(4), 887-907.
Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75(1), 43-88.
Baumrind, D. (1971a). Harmonious parents and their preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 4(1), 99-102.
Baumrind, D. (1971b). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1), 1-103
Baumrind, D. (1980). New directions in socialization research. American Psychologist, 35(7), 639.
Baumrind, D. (1996). The discipline controversy revisited. Family Relations, 45, 405-414.
Baumrind, D. (2005). Patterns of parental authority and adolescent autonomy. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 108, 61-69.
Beauvoir, S. de. (2019). İkinci cinsiyet (G. Savran, Trans.). Koç Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Belli, M., Akçay, N., & Bal Yılmaz, H. (2021). Geçmişten günümüze değişen babalık rolü ve çocuk gelişimine katkıları. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8(2), 366-371. https://doi.org/10.34087/cbusbed.806798
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55(1), 83-96.
Bianchi, S. M., Sayer, L. C., Milkie, M. A., & Robinson, J. P. (2012). Housework: Who did, does, or will do it, and how much does it matter? Social Forces, 91(1), 55-63. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sos120
Bozok, M. (2018). Türkiye’de babalığı anlamak serisi II: Ebeveynlik, erkeklik ve çalışma hayatı arasında Türkiye'de babalık. Anne Çocuk Eğitim Vakfı.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
Brown, G. L., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & Neff, C. (2012). Father involvement, paternal sensitivity, and father–child attachment security in the first 3 years. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(3), 421-430.
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713.
Cabrera, N. J., Tamis-LeMonda, S., Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S., & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Development, 71, 127-136.
Cabrera, N. J., Volling, B. L., & Barr, R. (2018). Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children's development. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 152-157.
Craig, L., & Mullan, K. (2011). How mothers and fathers share childcare: A cross-national time-use comparison. American Sociological Review, 76(6), 834861.
Cunningham, M. (2001). The influence of parental attitudes and behaviors on children's attitudes toward gender and household labor in early adulthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 111122.
Daminger, A. (2019). The cognitive dimension of household labor. American Sociological Review, 84(4), 609633.
Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113(3), 487496.
Doherty, W. J., Kouneski, E. F., & Erickson, M. F. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(2), 277292.
Donithen, R., & Schoppe-Sullivan, S. (2022). Correlates and predictors of parenting self-efficacy in new fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 36(3), 396405.
Doucet, A. (2016). The ethics of care and the radical potential of fathers “home alone on leave.” In Comparative perspectives on work–life balance and gender equality (pp. 11–28). Springer.
Doucet, A., & Lee, R. (2014). Fathering, feminism(s), gender, and sexualities: Connections, tensions, and new pathways. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6(4), 355373.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. Norton.
Erzeybek, B., & Çifci, E. (2019). Akademisyen kadınların toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri ve evlilik uyumu. Sosyal Çalışma Dergisi, 3(1), 61-80.
Farré, L., & Vella, F. (2013). The intergenerational transmission of gender role attitudes and its implications for female labour force participation. Economica, 80, 219247.
Feinberg, M. E. (2003). The internal structure and ecological context of coparenting. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3(2), 95131.
Field, T. (1978). Interaction behaviors of primary versus secondary caretaker fathers. Developmental Psychology, 14(2), 183184.
Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2003). The role of father involvement in children's later mental health. Journal of Adolescence, 26(1), 63-78.
Gornick, J. C., & Meyers, M. K. (2003). Families that work: Policies for reconciling parenthood and employment. Russell Sage Foundation.
Grusec, J. E., Goodnow, J. J., & Kuczynski, L. (2000). New directions in analyses of parenting contributions to children's acquisition of values. Child Development, 71(1), 205-211.
Grusec, J. E., & Ungerer, J. (2003). Effective socialization as problem solving and the role of parenting cognitions. In L. Kuczynski (Ed.), Handbook of dynamics in parent–child relations (pp. 211-228). SAGE.
Gültekin Akduman, G., & Türkoğlu, D. (2015). Okul öncesi dönem çocuğu olan babaların babalık rolü algısı ile çocuklarının sosyal becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Karadeniz Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(3), 224-241.
Hays, S. (1996). The cultural contradictions of motherhood. Yale University Press.
Hofferth, S. L., Pleck, J. H., Goldscheider, F., Curtin, S., & Hrapczynski, K. (2013). Family structure and men's motivation for parenthood in the United States. In N. J. Cabrera & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement (pp. 57-80). Routledge.
Hochschild, A. R. (1989). The second shift: Working parents and the revolution at home. Viking.
Hoghughi, M. S., & Long, N. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of parenting: Theory and research for practice. SAGE.
Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (2017). Benlik, aile ve insan gelişimi: Kültürel psikoloji. Koç Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Kahraman, H., & Irmak, T. Y. (2019). Ana babalık uygulamaları ölçeği–okul öncesi dönemi formu. In E. Hamarta (Ed.), 21. Uluslararası Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Kongresi Tam Metin Kitabı (pp. 63-76). Türk PDR Derneği Yayınları.
Karacan, E., & Kazak Berument, S. (2012). Yetişkin gelişiminin anababalık rolleri açısından niteliksel olarak incelenmesi. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12(3), 137-152.
Koslowski, A. (2023). Parenting leaves, workplace characteristics, male health, and the pandemic. Journal of Family Research, 35, 1–16.
Kuczynski, L. (1984). Socialization goals and mother–child interaction. Developmental Psychology, 20(6), 1061-1073.
Kuzucu, Y. (2011). Değişen babalık rolü ve çocuk gelişimine etkisi. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 4(35), 79-91.
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