Kalp Cerrahisinde Farmakolojik Yaklaşım

Lüllmann H, Ziegler A, Mohr K, Bieger D. Color atlas of pharmacology. 2 nd edition. Georg Thieme Verlag,2000; pp: 1-76.

Wood M. Pharmacokinetics and principles of drug infusion in cardiac patients. In: Kaplan JA, Konstadt SN, Reich DL.(eds) Cardiac Anesthesia 4 th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders,1999; pp; 657-88.

Mackay, Jonathan H, Arrowsmith, Joseph E. Core Topics in Cardiac Anesthesia Effects of CPB on drug pharmacokinetics. Cardiac pharmacology.(Chapter 12), 2012; 71–74.

Rao V, Ivanov J, Weisel RD, Ikonomidis JS, Christakis GT, David TE. Predictors of low cardiac output syndrome after coronary artery bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,1996;112(1):38-51.

Lomivorotov VV, Efremov SM, Kirov MY, Fominskiy EV, Karaskov AM. Low-Cardiac-Output Syndrome After Cardiac Surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2017;31(1):291-308.

Sahulee R, McKinstry J. Pharmacologic therapies for the low cardiac output syndrome in children after cardiac surgery: evidence of their efficacy and trends in their use. Vessel Plus, 2022;6:5.

Portman MA, Slee A, Olson AK, et al. TRICCInvestigators. Triiodothyronine Supplementation in Infants and Children Undergoing Cardiopulmonary Bypass (TRICC): a multicenter placebo-controlled randomized trial: age analysis. Circulation, 2010;122(11 Suppl):S224-33. 8. Teerlink J, Metra M, Zaca V, et al. Agents with inotropic properties fort he management of acute heart failure syndromes. Traditional agents and beyond. Heart Fail Rev, 2009;14:243-53.

Gelal A, Gümüştekin M. İnotropik ve vazopressör ilaçlar. Kerry Z, Yağdı T, editörler. Kalp Yetersizliği ve Tedavisinde Yeni Hedefler. 1. Baskı. Ankara: Türkiye Klinikleri, 2023;p:103-9.

Bristow MR, Ginsburg R, Minobe W et al. Decreased catecholamine sensitivity and beta-adrenergic - receptor density in failing human hearts. N Engl J Med,1982; 307: 205-11.

Prielipp RC. Pharmacologic cardiovascular support with b-adrenergic drugs. Advances in physiology and pharmacology in Anesthesia and Critical Care Symposium, West Virginia, November 1996.

Biro GP, Douglas JR, Kean WJ, et al. Changes in regional blood flow distribution induced by infusion of dopexamine hydrochlorid or dobutamine in anesthetized dogs Am J Cardiol,1988; 62: 30C-36C.

Desjars P, Pinaud M, Potel G, et al. A reappraisal of norepinephrine therapy in human septic shock. Crit Care Med,1987;15:134-7.

Ghignone M, Girling L, Prewitt R. Volume expansion versus norepinephrine in treatment of a low cardiac output complicating an acute increase in right ventricular afterload in dogs. Anesthesiology,1984; 60: 132-5.

Richer M, Robert S, Lebel M. Renal hemodynamics during norepinephrine and low-dose dopamine infusions in man. Crit Care Med,1996; 24: 1150-6.

Mishra RC, Sodhi K, Prakash KC, et al. ISCCM Guidelines on Acute Kidney Injury and Renal Replacement Therapy. Indian J Crit Care Med, 2022;26(Suppl 2):S13-S42.

Steen PA, Tinker JH, Pluth JR, et al. Efficacy of dopamine, dobutamine, and epinephrine during emergence from cardiopulmonary bypass in man. Circulation, 1978; 57: 378-84.

Orme M, Brechenridge A, Dollery C. The effect of long term administration of dopamine on renal function in hypertensive patients. J Clin Pharmacol,1973; 6: 150-4.

Johnson RL. Low dose dopamine and oxygen transport by the lung. Circulation,1998; 98: 97-9.

Van de Borne P, Oren R, Somers V. Dopamine depresses minute ventilation in patients with heart failure. Circulation, 1998; 98:126-31.

Opasich C, Russo A, Mingrone R, Zambelli M, Tavazzi L. Intravenous inotropic agents in the intensive therapy unit: do they really make a difference? Eur J Heart Fail, 2000; 2: 7-11.

Fowler MB, Alderman EL, Oesterle SN, et al. Dobutamine and dopamine after cardiac surgery: Greater augmentation of myocardial blood flow with dobutamine. Circulation,1984; 70 (suppl 1): 1-103-11.

Miura T, Yoshida S, Limura D, Downey JM. Dobutamine modifies myocardial infarct size through supply-demand balance. Am J Physiol,1988; 254: H 855-61.

Tuttle RR, Pollack D, Todd G, at al. The effect of dobutamine on cardiac, oxygen balance, regional blood flow and infaction severity after coronary artery narrowing in dogs. Circ Res, 977; 41: 357.

Wollmering NM, Wiechmann RJ, Port JD, at al. Dobutamine is a partial agonist with an intrinsic activity of 0.5 in human myocardium (abstract). J Am Coll Cardiol, 1991;17:283.

Gılbert EM, Larrabee PA, Volkman AK, at al. Does dobutamine tolerance result from myocardial -receptor down regulation (abstract) J Am Coll Cardiol, 1992;19: 253.

Takkenberg JJ, Czer LS, Fishbein MC, et al. Eosinophilic myocarditis in patients awaiting heart transplantation. Crit Care Med, 2004;32(3):714-21.

Dage RC, Roebel LE, Hsich P, et al. Cardiovascular properties of a new cardiotonic agent: MDL 17,043, (1,3-dihydro -4-methly -S - [4 (methylthio)-benzoyl]-2 H-imidazol -2 one). J Cardiovasc Pharmacol,1982; 4: 500-8.

Kajimoto K, Hogiwara N, Kasanuki H, Hosoda S. Contribution of phosphodiesterase isozymes to the regulation of the L-type calcium current in human cardiac myocytes. Br J Pharmacol,1997; 121: 1549-56.

Gilbert EM, Hershberger RE, Wiechmann RJ et al. Pharmacologic and hemodynamic effect of combined agonist stimulation and phosphodiesterase inhibition in failing human heart. Chest,1995;108:1524 -32.

Firth BG, Ratner AV, Grassman ED, et al. Assesment of the inotropic and vasodilator effects of amrinone versus isoproterenol. Am J Cardiol,1984; 54: 1331-6.

Levy JH, Ramsay J, Bailey JM. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of phosphodiesterase-III inhibitors. J Cardiothorac Anesth,1990; 6 [suppl 5]: 7.

Royster RL, Bulterworth JF, Prielipp RC, et al. Combined inotropic effects of amrinone and epinephrine after cardiopulmonary bypass in humans. Anesth Analg,1993;77:662-72.

Hardy JF, Searle N, Roy M, Perrault J. Amrinone, in combination with norepirephrine, is an effective first-line drug for difficult separation from cardiopulmonary bypass. Can J Anesth,1993; 40: 495 -501.

Bolling SF, Deeb GM, Crowley DC, et al. Prolonged amrinone therapy prior to orthotopic cardiac transplantation in patients with pulmonary hypertension Transplant Proc,1988; 20 1(suppl 1): 753-6.

Lawless S. Amrinone pharmacokinetics in neonates and infants. J Clin Pharmacol,1988; 28: 283-4.

Clarke W, Morray J, Powers K, Soltow L. Amrinone reduces pulmonary vascular resistance elavated by U 46619 in isolated perfused lungs. J Cardiovasc Pharm,1991;18: 85-94.

Fontes ML, Hines RL. Pharmacologic management of perioperative left and right ventricular dysfunction. In: Kaplan JA, Konstadt SN, Reich DL (eds).Cardiac Anesthesia, 4 th ed, Philadelphia: WB Saunders,1999; pp: 1155-92.

Levy JH, Bailey JM, Deeb GM. Intravenous milrinone in cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg, 2002; 73:325-30.

Binkley PF, Shafer PB, Ryan JM, Leter CV. Augmentation of diastolic function with phosphodiesterase inhibition in congestive heath failure. J Lab Clin Med,1989; 114:266-71.

Herrmann HC, Ruddy TD, William G et al. Inotropic effect of enoximone in patients with severe hearth failure: demonstration by left ventricular end- systolic pressure-volume analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol,1987; 9: 1117-23.

Packer M, Carver JR, Chesebro JH, et al. Effect of oral milrinone an mortality in severe chronic hearth failure. PROMISE Study Research Group. N Engl J Med,1991; 325: 1468-75.

Cowley AJ, Skene AM, on behalf of the Enoximone Investigators. Treatment of severe hearth failure: Quantity or quality of life? A trial of enoximone. Br Heart J,1994; 72: 226-30.

Gilbert EM, Bristow MR, Mason JW. Acute hemodynamic response to low dose enoximone (MDL 17,043): An oral dose -range study. Am J Cardiol,1987; 82: 57C-62C.

Lowers B, Higginbotham M, Petrovich L,et al. Low dose enoximone improves exercise capacity in chronic hearth failure. Enoximone Study Group. J Am Coll Cardiol,2000; 36: 501-8.

Lowers BD, Simon MA, Tsekova TO, Bristowe MR. Inotropes in the ß- blocker era. Clin Cardiol, 2000; 23 (Suppl 3) : 11-16.

Kinney EL, Bollard JO, Carlin B, Zelis R. Amrinone Mediated Trombocytopenia. Scand J Haematol,1983; 31: 276-80.

Holmberg SR, Williams AJ. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors and the cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release channel. Differential effects of milrinone and enoximone. Cardiovasc Res,1991; 25: 537-45.

Alousi AA, Stuart JC, Stankus GP. Possible mechanism of action of milrinone a new inotropic agent. Fed Proc,1984; 43: 938.

Cody V, Wojitezok A, Davis FB, et al. Structure - activity relationships of milrinone analogues determined in vitro in a rabbit hearth membrane Ca2+ -ATPase model. J Med Chem,1995; 38: 1990-97.

PROMISE Study Research Group. Packer M, Carver JR, Rodeheffer RJ, et al. for the PROMISE Study Research Group. Effect of oral milrinone on mortality in severe chronic hearth failure. N Eng J Med,1991; 325: 1468-75.

Cuffe MS, Califf RM, Adams KF Jr, et al. Outcomes of a Prospective Trial of Intravenous Milrinone for Exacerbations of Chronic Heart Failure (OPTIME-CHF) Investigators. Short-term intravenous milrinone for acute exacerbation of chronic heart failure: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2002;287(12):1541-7.

Stroshane RM, Benziger DP, Edelson J. Pharmacokinetics of milrinone in congestive heart failure patients. In: Braunwald E, Sonnenblick EH, Chakrin LW, Schwarz RP Jr (eds) : Milrinone Investigation of a New Inotropic Therapy for Congestive heart failure . New York: Raven press,1984; pp; 119-31.

Bayram M, De Luca L, Massie MB, Gheorghiade M. Reassessment of dobutamine, dopamine, and milrinone in the management of acute heart failure syndromes. Am J Cardiol, 2005;96(6A):47G-58G.

Petersen JW, Felker GM. Inotropes in the management of acute heart failure. Crit care Med, 2008; 36: S106-S111.

Nielsen DV, Torp-Pedersen C, Skals RK, Gerds TA, Karaliunaite Z, Jakobsen CJ. Intraoperative milrinone versus dobutamine in cardiac surgery patients: a retrospective cohort study on mortality. Crit Care, 2018;22(1):51.

Boldt J. Hemodynamic effects of enoximone in cardiac surgery patients. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol, 1989;14 (suppl1): S50-6.

Angeloni E, Melina G, Roscitano A, et al. Perioperative administration of enoximone and renal function after cardiac surgery: a propensity-matched analysis. Int J Cardiol, 2013;167(5):1961-6.

Angeloni E, Melina G, Federici F, et al. MOSEC Investigators. Preliminary results of the Multicenter Observational Study with Enoximone in Cardiac surgery (MOSEC). Int J Cardiol, 2018;269:51-55.

Focaccio A, Peeters G, Movsesian M, et al. Mechanism of action of OPC- 8490 in human ventricular myocardium. Circulation,1996; 93: 817-25.

Abraham WT, Lowes BD, White M, et al. Comparative hemodynamic effects of OPC-18790 and dobutamine in patients with advanced heart failure J Card Fail,1994;1: 57-62.

Feldman MD, Pak PH, Wu CC, et al. Acute cardiovascular effects of OPC-18790 in patients with congestive heart failure. Time and dose-dependence analysis based on pressure - volume relations. Circulation,1996; 93: 474-83.

Matsumori A, Shioi T, Yamada T, et al. Vesnarinone, a new inotropic agent, inhibits cytokine productions by stimulated human blood from patients with heart failure. Circulation,1994; 89: 955-58.

Sadayama S, Matsumori A. Vesnarinone: a potential cytokine inhibitor. J Card Fail,1996; 2:251-8.

MacGowan GA, Haber HL, Cowart TD, Tedesco C, Wu C, Feldman MD. Direct myocardial effects of OPC-18790 in human heart failure: beneficial effects on contractile and diastolic function demonstrated by intracoronary infusion with pressure-volume analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol,1998;31(6):1344-51.

Holubarsch C. New inotropic concepts: rationale for differences between calcium sensitizers and phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Cardiology, 1997; 88 (suppl 2):12-20.

Slawsky MT, Colucci WS, Gottlieb SS, et al. Acute hemodynamic and clinical effects of levosimendan in patients with severe heart failure. Circulation, 2000; 102: 2222-7.

Boknik P. Neumann J, Kaspereit G, et al. Mechanism of the contractile effects of levosimendan in the mammalian heart. J Pharmacol Exp Ther,1997; 280: 277-83.

Auslender M. New drugs in the treatment of heart failure. Prog. Ped. Card,2000; 12 119-124.

Hagemeijer F. Calcium sensitization with pimobendan: Pharmacology hemodynamic improvement, and sudden death in patients with chronic congestive heart failure. Eur Heart J,1993; 14: 551-66.

Bethke T, Eschenhogen T, Klimkiewicz A, et al. Phosphodiesterase inhibition by enoximone in preparations from non failing and failing human hearts. Arzneimittelforschung,1992; 42: 437-45.

Lubsen J, Just H, Hjalmarsson AC, et al. Effect of pimobendan on exercise capacity in patients with heart failure. Main results from the pimobendan in Congestive Heart Failure (PICO) trial. Heart,1996;76: 223-31.

Lilleberg J, Sundberg S, Neminen MS. Dose-range study of a new calcium sensitizer, levosimendan, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol,1995; 26(Suppl): 63-9.

Yokoshiki H, Katsube Y, Sunogawa M, Sperelakis N. Levosimendan a novel calcium sensitizer, activates the glibenclamide-sensitive K+ channel in rat arterial myocytes. Eur J Pharmacol,1997; 333: 249-59.

Kersten JR, Montgomery MW, Pagel PS, Warltier DC. Levosimendan, a new positive inotropic drug, decreases myocardial infarct size via activation of KATP channels. Anesth Analg, 2000; 90: 5-11.

Yokoshiki H, Katsube Y, Sunogawa M, Sperelakis N. The novel calcium sensitizer levosimendan activates the ATP - sensitive K+ channel in rat ventricular cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther,1997; 283: 375-83.

Papp Z, Csapo K, Pollesello P, Haikala H, Edes I. Pharmacological mechanisms contributing to the clinical efficacy of levosimendan. Cardiovasc Drug Rev, 2005; 23:71-98.

Cleland JG, Freemantlee N, Coletta AP, Clark AL. Clinical trials update from the American Heart Association: REPAIR-AMI, ASTAMI, JELIS, MEGA, REVİVE-II, SURVİVE and PROACTİVE. Eur J Heart Fail, 2006; 8:105-10.

Cleland J. Results of RUSSLAN Trial. Presented 4 at the 1999 Meeting of the Heart Failure Society of America, San Francisco, 1999.

De Hert SG, Lorsomradee S, vanden Eede H, Cromheecke S, Van der Linden PJ. A randomized trial evaluating different modalities of levosimendan administration in cardiac surgery patients with myocardial dysfunction. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2008; 22:699-705.

Guarracino F, Heringlake M, Cholley B, et al. Use of levosimendan in cardiac surgery: An update after the LEVO-CTS, CHEETAH, and LICORN trials in the light of clinical practice. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol, 2018;71:pp. 1-9.

Boboshko V, Lomivorotov V, Ruzankin P, et al. Levosimendan in patients with low cardiac output syndrome after cardiac surgery: A substudy of the multicenter randomized CHEETAH trial. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2025;39(1):151-161.

Parissis J, Farmakis D, Nieminen M. Classical inotropes and new cardiac enhances. Heart Fail Rev, 2007; 12:149-156.

Nieminen MS, Bohm M, Cowie MR, et al. ESC committee for practice guideline. Executive summary of the guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of acute heart failure: the task force on acute hearth failure of the European society of cardiology. Eur Heart J, 2005; 26:384-416.

McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, et al. 2021 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure. Developed by the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). With the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. European Journal of Heart Failure,2022;24: 4–131.

Khan H, Metra M, Blair JE, et al. Istaroxime, a first in class new chemical entity SERCA-2 activation and Na-K-ATPase inhibition: a new promising treatment for acute heart failure syndromes. Heart Fail Rev,2009; 14:277-87.

Abuelazm M, Ali S, AlBarakat MM, et al. Istaroxime for Patients with Acute Heart Failure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Diseases, 2023;11(4):183.

Parissis JT, Rafouli-Stergiou P, Stasinos V, Psarogiannakopoulos P, Mebazaa A. Inotropes in cardiac patients: update 2011. Curr Opin Crit Care,2010; 16:432-41.

Gheorghiade M, Greene SJ, Butler J, et al. SOCRATES-REDUCED Investigators and Coordinators. Effect of Vericiguat, a Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Stimulator, on Natriuretic Peptide Levels in Patients With Worsening Chronic Heart Failure and Reduced Ejection Fraction: The SOCRATES-REDUCED Randomized Trial. JAMA,2015;314(21):2251-62.

Armstrong PW, Pieske B, Anstrom KJ, et al. VICTORIA Study Group. Vericiguat in Patients with Heart Failure and Reduced Ejection Fraction. N Engl J Med,2020;382(20):1883-1893.

Pieske B, Maggioni AP, Lam CSP, et al. Vericiguat in patients with worsening chronic heart failure and preserved ejection fraction: results of the SOluble guanylate Cyclase stimulatoR in heArT failurE patientS with PRESERVED EF (SOCRATES-PRESERVED) study. Eur Heart J,2017;38(15):1119-1127.

Vannuccini F, Campora A, Barilli M, Palazzuoli A. Vericiguat in Heart Failure: Characteristics, Scientific Evidence and Potential Clinical Applications. Biomedicines, 2022;10(10):2471.

Teerlink JR, Diaz R, Felker GM, et al, on behalf of the GALACTIC-HF Investigators. Cardiac myosin activation with omecamtiv mecarbil in systolic heart failure. N Engl J Med, 2021;384:105-16. Teerlink JR, Felker GM, McMurray JJ, et al, on behalf of the COSMIC-HF Investigators. Chronic Oral Study of Myosin Activation to Increase Contractility in Heart Failure (COSMIC-HF): a phase 2, pharmacokinetic, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet,2016;388:2895-2903. Motwani S K, Saunders H. Cardiac anesthesia, Inotropes. Anesthesia & Intensive care, 2024;25(3):185-191.

Kelly RA, Smith TW. Digoxin in heart failure: Implications of recent trials. J Am Coll Cardiol,1993; 22 (Suppl A): 107-112A.

Ferguson DW, Berg WS, Sanders JS, et al. Sympathoinhibitory responses to digitalis glycosides in heart failure patients. Circulation, 1989;80:65-77.

Eichhorn EJ, Gheorghiade M. Digoxin. Prog Card Dis, 2002;44:251;66.

Lynch JJ, Kitzen JM, Hoff PT, et al. Reduction in digitalis- associated postinfarction mortality with nadolol in conscious dogs. Am Heart J,1988;115:67-76.

Becker LC. Conditions for vasodilator - induced coronary steal in experimental myocardial ischemia. Circulation,1978;57:1103-10.

Panzenbeck MJ, Baez A, Kaley G. Nitroglycerin and nitroprusside increase CBF in dogs by a mechanism independent of prostagladin release Am Cardiol, 1984;53:936-40.

Abrams J. Hemodynamic effects of nitroglycerin and long-acting nitrates. Am Heart J,1985;110:216-24.

Mangione NJ, Glasser SP. Phenomenon of nitrate tolerance Am Heart J,1994;128:137-46. Axelsson KL, Anderson RGG. Tolerance towards nitroglycerin induced in vivo, is correlated to a reduced cGMP response and on alteration in cGMP turnover. Eur J Pharmacol,1983;88:71-9. Watanabe H, Kakihana M, Ohtsuka S, et al. Platelet cyclic GMP. A potentially useful indicator to evaluate the effects of nitroglycerin and nitrate tolerance. Circulation,1993; 88:29-36. Munzel T, Sayegh H, Freeman BA, Harrison DG. Evidence for enhanced vascular superoxide anion production in tolerance. A novel mechanism underlying tolerance and cross tolerance. J Clin Invest,1995;95:187-94.

Munzel T, Giaid A, Kurz S, Harrison DG. Evidence for a role of endothelin 1 and protein kinase C in nitrate tolerance. Proc Natl Acad Sci,1995; 92: 5244-8.

Pizzulli L, Nitsch J, Luderitz B. Inhibiton of heparin effect by nitroglycerin. Dtsch Med Wochenschr,1988;113:1837-40.

Becker RC, Corrao JM, Bovill EG, et al. Intravenous nitroglycerin induced heparin resistance: A qualitative antithrombin III abnormality. Am Heart J,1990;119:1254-61. Bussmann V-D, Neumann K, Kaltenbach M. Effects of intravenous nitroglycerin on ventricular ectopic beats in acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J,1984;107:940-4.

Van Wezel Hb, Bovill JG, Schuller J. et al. Comparison of nitroglycerin, verapamil and nifedipin in the management of arterial pressure during coronary artery surgery. Br J Anaesth,1986;58:267-73.

Jett GK, Arcici JM, Hatcher CR, et al. Vasodilator drug effects on internal mammary artery and saphenous vein grafts. J Am Coll Cardiol, 1988; 11:1317-24.

Cooper GJ, Wilkinson GA, Angelini G. Overcoming perioperative spasm of internal mammary artery: Which is the best vasodilator? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,1982;104:465-8.

Huroux C, MakitaT, Mantes F et al. A comparative evaluation of the effects of multiple vasodilators on human internal mammary artery. Anesthesiology,1998; 88:1654-59.

Levy JH. Phosphodiestherase inhibitors: The inotropes of choice for the new millenium? J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2000; 14:365-6.

Levy JH. The ideal agent for perioperative hypertension and potential cytoprotective effects. Acta Anaesth Scand suppl,1993; 99:20-5.

D'Ambra M, La Raia P, Phellen D, et al. Prostaglandin E1- a new therapy for refractory right heart failure and pulmonary hypertension after mitral valve replacement. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,1985; 89:567-72.

Lowson SM, Doctor A, Walsh BK, Doorley PA. Inhaled prostacyclin for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension after cardiac surgery. Crit Care Med, 2002; 30:2762-4.

Haroldsson A, Kieler-Jensen N, Ricksten SE. The additive pulmonary vasodilatory effects of inhaled prostacyclin and inhaled milrinone in postcardiac surgical patients with pulmonary hypertension. Anesth Analg, 2001; 93:1439-45.

Kamenshchikov NO, Duong N, Berra L. Nitric Oxide in Cardiac Surgery: A Review Article. Biomedicines, 2023;11(4):1085.

Frostell C, Blomquist H, Lundberg J, et al: Inhaled nitric oxide dilates human hipoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction without causing systemic vasodilation Anesthesiology, 1991; 75:A 989.

Girard C, Lehot J, Pannetren JC, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide in pulmonary hypertension following mitral valve replacement. Anesthesiology, 1992; 77:880-3.

Trancy E, Francoeur M, Blaise G. Inhaled nitric oxide: Clinical applications, indications, and toxicology. Can J Anaesth,1997; 44:973-88.

Albrecht RF, Toyooka ET, Polk SLH, Zahed B. Hydralazine therapy for hypertension during anesthetic and post anesthetic periods. Int Anesth Clin, 1978;16:299-312.

Leier CV, Desch CE, Magorien RD, et al. Positive inotropic effects of hydralazine in human subjects in comparison with prazosin in the setting of congestive heart failure. Am J Cardiol, 1980; 46:1039-44.

Magorien RD, Brown GP, Unverferth DV, et al. Effects of hydralazine on coronary blood flow and myocardial energetics in congestive heart failure. Circulation,1982; 65:528-33.

Smucker ML, Sanford CF, Lipscomb KM. Effects of hydralazine on pressure volume and stress-volume relations in congestive heart failure secondary to idiopathic dilated cardiomyopaty. Am J Cardiol,1985; 56:690-5.

Lüllmann H, Ziegler A, Mohr K, Bieger D. Color atlas of pharmacology. Second Edition. Georg Thieme Verlag, 2000; pp.124.

Pipott DW, Nagle C, Allman K, Westaby S, Evans RD. Effect of omitting regular ACE inhibitor medication before cardiac surgery on haemodynamic variables and vasoactive drug requirements. Br J Anaesth,1999; 83:715-20.

Hassani E, Mahoori A, Karami N, Hassani A, Hassani L. The Effect of Chronic Consumption of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Antagonists on Blood Pressure and Inotrope Consumption After Separation from Cardiopulmonary Bypass. Anesth Pain Med, 2018;8(3): e74026-e.

van Diepen S, Norris CM, Zheng Y, et al. Comparison of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor and Angiotensin Receptor Blocker Management Strategies Before Cardiac Surgery: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Registry Trial. J Am Heart Assoc, 2018;7(20):e009917-e. Antoniak DT, Walters RW, Alla VM. Impact of Renin-Angiotensin System Blockers on Mortality in Veterans Undergoing Cardiac Surgery. J Am Heart Assoc, 2021;10(10):e019731-e.

Seese L, Sultan I, Wang Y, Gleason T, Thoma F, Kilic A. The effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor exposure on coronary artery bypass grafting. J Card Surg, 2019;35(1):58-65.

Podar T, Tuomiletho J. The role of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists in the management of diabetic complications. Drugs, 2002; 62:2007-12.

Cohn JN, Johnson G, Ziesche S et al. A comparison of enalapril with hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate in the treatment of congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med,1991; 325:303-10.

Cannon PT, Powers ER. Reison DS and the Captopril Multicenter Research Group. A placebo-controlled trial of captopril in refractory chronic congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol,1983; 2:755-63.

Chatterjee K, Rouleau JL, Parmley WW. Captopril in congestive heart failure: Improved left ventricular function with decreased metabolic cost. Am Heart J, 1982;104:1137-46.

Ryckwaert F, Colsen P, Ribstein J, Boccara G, Guillan G. Haemodynamic and renal effects of intravenous enaprilat during coronary artery bypass graft surgery in patients with ischaemic heart dysfunction. Br. J Anaesth, 2001;86:169-75.

Pitt B, Poole-Wilson PA, Segal R, et al. Effect of losartan compared with captopril on mortality in patients with symptomatic heart failure. Randomized trial-The Losartan Heart Failure Survival Study ELİTE II Lancet, 2000; 355:1582-7.

Pitt B, Segal R, Martinez FA, et al. Randomized trial of losartan versus captopril in patients over 65 with heart failure (Evaluation of Losartan in the Elderly Study ELİTE) Lancet,1997;349:747-52.

Laursen JB, Rajagopalan S, Galis Z, Tarpey M, Freeman BA, Harrison DG. Role of superoxide in angiotensin II - induced but hypertension. Circulation,1997; 95:588-93.

Hemroff G, Katz SD, Mancini D et al. Addition of angiotensin II receptor blockade to maximal angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition improves exercise capacity in patients with severe congestive heart failure. Circulation,1999; 99:990-2.

Baruch L, Anand I, Cohen IS, et al. Augmented short and long-therm hemodynamic and hormonal effects of an angiotensin receptor blocker added to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor therapy in patient with heart failure. Vasodilator Heart Failure Trial. (V-HeFT) Study Group. Circulation, 1999; 99:2658-64.

Morgan GE, Mikhail MS, Murray MJ. Hypotensive agents. Chapter 13 in. Clinical Anesthesiology 3 rd edition. USA: McGraw – Hill, 2002; pp: 224-32.

Nowycky MC, Fox AP, Tsien RW. Three types of neuronal calcium channel with afferent calcium agonist sensitivity. Nature,1985; 316:440-3.

Mitra R, Morad M. Two types of calcium channels in guinea pig ventricular myocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,1986; 83;5340-4.

Kaplan JA. Clinical considerations for the use of intravenous nicardipine in the treatment of postoperative hypertension. Am Heart J, 1990; 119:443-6.

Apostalidou I, Skubas NJ, Bakola A, et al. Effects of nicardipine and nitroglycerin on perioperative myocardial ischemia in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,1999; 11:77-83.

Bailey JM, Lu W, Levy JH, et al. Clevidipine in adult cardiac surgical patients. A dose-finding study. Anesthesiology, 2002; 96:1086-94.

Lichtlen PR, Hugenholtz PG, Rafflenbeul W, et al. Retardation of angiographic progression of coronary artery disease by nifedipine, Results of the International Nifedipine Trial on Antiatherosclerotic Therapy (INTACT) Lancet,1990; 335:1109-13.

Henry PD. Atherosclerosis, calcium and calcium antagonists. Circulation,1985; 72:456-9.

Chrerchia S, Crea F, Bernini W, et al. Antiplatelet effects of verapamil in man (abstract) Am J Cardiol,1991; 47:399.

Bergman AS, Odar-Cederlof I, Westman L, Biellerup P, Hoglund P, Ohqvist G. Diltiazem infusion for renal protection in cardiac surgical patients with preexisting renal dysfunction. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2002;16:294-9.

Yavuz S, Ayabakan N, Goncu MT, Ozdemir IA. Effect of combined dopamine and diltiazem on renal function after cardiac surgery. Med Sci Monit, 2002; 8:PI 45-50.

Schroeder JS. Gao SZ, Alderman EL, et al. A preliminary study of diltiazem in the prevention of coronary artery disease in heart transplant recipients. N Engl J Med,1993; 328:164-70.

Ginsburg R, Davis K, Bristow MR, et al. Calcium antagonists suppress atherogenesis in aorta but not in the intramural coronary arteries of cholesterol-fed rabbits. Lab Invest,1983; 49:154-8.

The effect of diltiazem on mortality and reinfarction after myocardial infarction. The Multicenter Diltiazem Postinfarction Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med,1988;319:385-92.

Gibson RS, Hansen JF, Messerli F, Schechtman KB, Boden WE. Long-Term Effects of diltiazem and verapamil on mortality and cardiac events in non Q-wave acute myocardial infarction without pulmonary congestion: Post Hoc Subset Analysis of Multicenter Diltiazem Post Infarction Trial and the Second Danish Verapamil Infarction Trial Studies. Am J Cardiol, 2000; 86:275-9.

Hollingsheed LM, Foulds D, Fitton A. Bepridil. A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in stable angina pectoris. Drugs, 1992; 44:835-57.

Bertolissi M, De Monte A, Giordano F. Comparison of intravenous nifedipine and sodyum nitroprusside for treatment of acute hypertension after cardiac surgery. Minerva Anesthesiol,1998; 64:321-8.

Furberg CD, Psaty BM, Meyer JV. Nifedipine dose-related increase in mortality in patients with coronary heart disease. Circulation,1995; 92:1326-31.

Opie LH, Messerli FH. Nifedipine and mortality. Grave defects in dossier. Circulation,1995; 92:1068-73.

Ruddy MC. The INSIGHT and NORDIL trials. Are calcium antagonists equivalent to established drug therapies for cardiovascular protection? Curr Hypertens Rep, 2001;3:289-96.

Virani SS, Newby LK, Arnold SV, et al. 2023 AHA/ACC/ACCP/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline for the Management of Patients With Chronic Coronary Disease: A Report of the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation,2023;148(9): e9 - e119.

Buhler FR, Laragh JH, Baer L, et al. Propranolol inhibition of renin secretion. A specific approach to diagnosis and treatment of renin dependent hypertensive diseases. N. Eng J Med, 1972;287:1209-14.

Gress TW, Nieto FJ, Shahar E, Wofford MR, Brancati FL. Hypertension and antihypertensive terapy as risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med, 2000;342: 905-12.

Kaplan JR, Manuck SB, Adams MR, et al. The effects of beta adrenergic blocking agents on atherosclerosis and its complications. Eur Heart J,1987;8:928-44.

Jaillon P. Relevance of intrinsic sympathomimetic activity for beta blockers. Am J Cardiol,1990;66:21C-23C.

Abrams J. Allen J, Allin D, et al. Efficacy and safety of esmolol versus propranolol in the treatment of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias: A multicenter double-blind clinical trial. Am Heart J,1985;110:913-22.

Salpeter SR, Ormiston TM, Salpeter EF. Cardioselective beta-blockers in patients with reactive airway disease: A meta-analysis. Ann intern Med, 2002;5:137:715-25.

Sheppard D, DeStefano S, Byrd RC, et al. Effects of esmolol on airway function in patients with asthma J Clin Pharmacol,1986;26:169-74.

Landoni G, Crescenzi G, Zangrillo A, et al. Validation of a decision-making strategy for systolic anterior motion following m,tral valve repair. AnnCard Anesth, 2011;14:85-90.

Charlap S, Lichstein E, Frishman WH. B-adrenergic blocking drugs in the treatment of congestive heart failure. Med Clin North Am,1989;73:373-85.

Martinez EA, Pronovost P. Perioperative beta-blockers in high-risk patients. J Crit Care, 2002;17:105-13.

Ryan TJ, Anderson JL, Antman EM, et al. ACC/AHA quidelines for the management of patients with acute myocardial infarction. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol,1996;28:1328-1419.

Geraci SA, Haan CK. Effect of beta blockers after coronary artery bypass in post infarct patients: What can we learn from available literature? Ann Thorac Surg, 2002;74:1727-32.

Ambrosioni E, Bacchelli S, Esposti DD, Borghi C. Beta-blockade in hypertension and congestive heart failure J Cardiovasc Pharmacol, 2001; 38 suppl 3: S25-31.

Mancia G, Kreutz R, Brunström M, et al. 2023 ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension: Endorsed by the International Society of Hypertension (ISH) and the European Renal Association (ERA). J Hypertens, 2023;41:1874–2071.

Leone M, Albanese J, Martin C. Positive inotropic stimulation. Curr Opin Crit Care, 2002; 8:395-403.

Pritchett Am, Redfield MM. Beta-blockers: New standard therapy for heart failure. Mayo Clin Proc, 2002; 77:839-45.

DeSanctis RW, Doroghazi RM, Austen WG, et al. Aortic dissection. N Engl Med,1987; 317:1060-7.

Meisner JS, Keren G, Pajaro OE, et al. Contribution to ventricular filling in mitral stenosis. Circulation,1991; 84:1469-80.

Kornbluth A, Frishman WH, Ackerman M. Beta-adrenergic blockade in children. Cardiol Clin,1987; 5:629-49.

Wechsler AS. Assessment of prospectively randomized patients receiving propranolol therapy before coronary bypass operation. Ann Thorac Surg,1980;30:128-36.

Silverman NA, Wright R, Levitsky S. Efficacy of low- dose propranolol in preventing postoperative supraventricular tachyarrhythmias: A prospective randomized study. Ann Surg,1982;196:194-7.

Metra M, Nodari S, D'Aloia A, et al. Beta -blocker therapy influences the hemodynamic response to inotropic agents in patients with heart failure. A randomized comparison of dobutamine and enoximone before and after chronic treatment with metoprolol or carvedilol. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2002;2:40:1248-58.

Yu SK, Tait G, Karkouti K, Wijeysundera D, McCluskey S, Beattie WS. The safety of perioperative esmolol: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Anesth.Analg, 2011;112:267-81.

Flu WJ, van Kuijk JP, Chonchol M, Winkel TA, Verhagen HJ, Bax JJ, Poldermans D. Timing of pre-operative Beta-blocker treatment in vascular surgery patients: influence on post-operative outcome. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2010; 30;56:1922-9.

Vaughan Williams EM: Classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. In: Sandoe E, Flensted - Jensen E, Olesen KH (eds) . Symposium on Cardiac Arrhythmias. Sodertalje, Sweden AB Astra, 1970;p: 449-72.

Vaughan Williams EM: Classification of antiarrhythmic agents reassessed after a decade of new drugs. J Clin Pharmacol,1984; 24:129-47.

Pritchett ELC: Management of atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med,1974;290:706-9.

Davis RF: Etiology and treatment of perioperative arrhythmias. In: Kaplan JA Konstadt SN, Reich DL (eds) Cardiac Anesthesia.4 th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders,1999;pp. 177-213.

Krone RJ, Miller JP, Kleiger RE, et al. The effectiveness of antiarrhythmic agents on early - cycle premature ventricular complexes. Circulation,1981; 63:664-9.

Singh BN. Routine prophylactic lidocaine administration in acute myocardial infarction. An idea whose time is all but gone? Circulation,1992;26:1033-5.

McMahon S, Collins R, Peto R, et al. Effects of prophylactic lidocaine in suspected acute myocardial infarction. JAMA,1988;260:1910-6.

Campbell RWF, Bryson LG, Bailey BK, et al. Prophylactic administration of tocainide in acute myocardial infarction. In: Pottage A, Ryden L (eds). Workshop on Tocainide Sweden: AB Hassle,1981; pp 201-4.

Barber MJ. Class I antiarrhythmic agents. In: Lynch C III (ed). Clinical Cardiac Electrophysiology: Perioperative Considerations. Philadelphia: JP Lippincott,1984;p:85.

Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppresion Trial (CAST) Investigators. Preliminary reports, effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppresion after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med,1989;321:406-12.

Echt DS, Liepson PR, Mitchell LB, et al and the CAST investigators. Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide or placebo. N Engl J Med,1991;324:781-8.

Wehling M. Meta-analysis of flecainide safety in patients with supraventricular arrhythmias. Arzneimittelforschung,2002; 52:507-14.

Carmeliet E, Janssen PHA, Marsboom R, et al. Antiarrhythmic electrophysiologic and hemodynamic effects of lorcainide. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther,1978; 231:104-30.

Somberg J, Butler B, Flowers D, et al. Longterm lorcainide therapy in patients with ventricular tachycardia. Am Heart J,1985; 109:33-40.

Anderson JL. Antifibrillatory versus antiectopic therapy Am J Cardiol,1984;54:7A, 13A.

Doggrell SA. Amiodarone - waxed and waned and waxed again. Expert Opin Pharmacother,2001; 2:1877-90.

Rosen MR, Wit AL. Electropharmacology of antiarrhythmic drugs Am Heart J,1982; 106(4 pt 2):829-39.

DeBoer LWV, Nosta JJ, Kloner RA, et al. Studies of amiodarone during experimental myocardial infaction: Beneficial effects on hemodynamics and infarct size. Circulation.1982; 65:508-12.

Herre JM, Souve MJ, Malone P, Scheinman M. Longterm results of amiodarone therapy in patients with recurrent sustained ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol,1989; 13: 442-9.

Herriman RJ, Gomes JAC, Kang PS, et al. Effective of intravenous amiodarone in patients with inducible repetitive ventricular responses and ventricular tachycardia. Am Heart J,1984; 107:1109-17.

Holt DW, Tucker GT, Jackson PR, Storey GCA. Amiodarone pharmacokinetics Am Heart J,1983; 106:840-7.

Rakita L, Sobol SM, Mostrow N, Vrobel T. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. Am Heart J,1983; 106 (4pt2):906-16.

Kerin NZ, Blevins RD, Benaderet D et al. Relation of serum reverse T3 to amiodarone antiarrhythmic efficacy and toxicity. Am J Cardiol,1986; 57:128-30.

Nokin P, Clinet M, Schoenfeld P. Cardiac beta-adreno-receptor modulation by amiodarone. Biochem Pharmacol,1983; 32:2473-7.

Harris L, McKeena WJ, Rowland E, et al. Side effects and possible contraindications of amiodarone use. Am Heart J,1983; 106 (4pt2):916 -23.

Singin BN. Electrophysiologic basis for the antiarrhythmic actions of sotalol and comparison with other agents. Am J Cardiol,1993; 72:8A.

Sager PT. New advances in class III antiarrhythmic drug therapy. Curr Opin Cardiol,2000; 15:41-53.

Reiter MJ, The ESVEM trial. Impact on treatment of ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Electrophysiologic Study versus Electrocardiographic Monitoring. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol,1997; 20 (2pt2):46877.

Wanless RS, Anderson K, Joy M, Joseph SP. Multicenter comparative study of the efficacy and safety of sotalol in the prophylactic treatment of patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Am Heart J,1997; 133:441-6.

Wurdeman RL, Mooss AN, Mohiuddin SM, Lenz TL. Amiodarone vs. sotalol as prophylaxis against atrial fibrillation / flutter after heart surgery. a meta analysis. Chest, 2002; 121:1203-10.

Waldo AI, Comm AJ, de Ruyter H, et al. Effect D-Sotalol on mortality in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after recent and remote myocardial infarction The SWORD Investigators, Survival with Oral D-Sotalol. Lancet,1996; 348:7-12.

Tsikouris JP, Cox CD. A review of class III antiarrhythmic agents for atrial fibrillations maintenance of normal sinus rhythm. Pharmacotherapy, 2001; 21:1514-29.

Foster RH, Wilde MI, Markham A. Ibutilide. A review of its pharmacological properties and clinical potential in the acute management of atrial flutter and fibrillation. Drugs,1997; 54:312-30.

Al-Dashti R, Sami M. Dofetilide: a new class III antiarrhythmic agent. Can J Cardiol, 2001; 17: 63-7.

Lowsen JW, Kraynack BJ, Gintautas J. Neuromuscular and electrocardiographic responses to verapamil in dogs. Anesth Analg,1983; 62: 50-4.

Amar D, Roistacher N, Burt ME, et al. Effects of diltiazem versus digoxin on dysrhythmias and cardiac function after pneumonectomy. Ann Thorac Surg,1997; 63: 1374-81.

Billman GE. Effect of calcium channel antagonists on cocaine - induced malignant arrhythmias: Protection against ventricular fibrillation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther,1993; 266:407-16.

Rosen MR, Gelband H, Merker C et al. Mechanism of digitalis toxicity: Effects of ouabain on phase 4 of canine Purkinje fiber transmembrane potentials. Circ Res,1973; 47:681-9.

Hood MA, Smith WM. Adenosine versus verapamil in the treatment of supraventricular tachycardia: A Randomized double-crossover trial. Am Heart J,1992; 123:1543-9.

Maslow AD, Regan MM, Heindle S, Ponzica P, Cohn WE, Johnson RG. Postoperative atrial tachyarrhythmias in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery without cardiopulmonary bypass: a role for intraoperative magnesium supplementation J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2000;14:524-30.

Mitchell LB, CCS Atrial Fibrillation Guidelines Committee. Canadian Cardiovascular Society atrial fibrillation guidelines 2010: prevention and treatment of atrial fibrillation following cardiac surgery. Can J Cardiol, 2011; 27:91-7.

Gaudino M, Di Franco A, Rong LQ, Piccini J, Mack M. Postoperative atrial fibrillation: from mechanisms to treatment. Eur Heart J, 2023;44(12):1020-1039.

Tisdale JE, Padhi ID, Goldberg AD, et al. A randomized, double-blind comparison of intravenous diltiazem and digoxin. Am Heart J,1998; 135:739-41.

Volgman AS, Carberry PA, Stambler B, et al. Conversion efficacy and safety on intravenous procainamide in patients with atrial flutter or fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol,1998; 31:1414 -9.

Loupacis A, Albers G, Dalen J, et al. Antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Chest,1998; 114:5799-895.

Reiffel JA. Drug choices in treatment of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol,2000; 85:120-190.

Camm J, Ward D, Spurrell R. Response of atrial flutter to overdrive atrial pacing and intravenous disopyramide phosphate, singly and in combination. Br Heart J,1980; 44:240-7.

Morady F. Radio-frequency ablation as treatment for cardiac arrhythmias. N Engl J Med,1999; 340:534-44.

Sloan SB, Weitz HH. Postoperative arrhythmias and conduction disorders. Med Clin N Am,2001; 85:1171-89.

Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support. Circulation,2000; 102 (SuppI 1):1-86-1-203.

Daccy LJ, Munoz JL, Baribeau YR, et al. Reexploration for hemorrhage following coronary artery bypass grafting: Incidence and risk factors. Northern New England Cardiovascular Disease Study Group, Arch Surg,1998; 133: 442-7.

Furie B, Furre BC. Molecular and cellular biology of blood coagulation. N Engl J Med,1992; 326:800-6.

Turpie AGG, Weitz JI, Hirsh J. Advances in antithrombotic therapy: novel agents. Thromb Haemost,1995; 74:565-71.

Hirsh J. Heparin. N Engl J Med,1991; 324:1565-74.

Despotis GJ, Joist JH, Hogue CW Jr, et al. More effective suppresion of hemostatic system activation in patients undergoing cardiac surgery by heparin dosing based on heparin blood concentrations rather than ACT. Thromb Haemostasis,1996; 76:902-8.

Gravlee GP, Brover SD, Ray RC, et al. Predicting the pharmacodynamics of heparin. A clinical evaluation of the Hepcon system 4. J Cardiothorac Anesth,1987;1:379-87.

Collen D, Schatz J, de Cock F, et al. Metabolism of antithrombin III (Heparin cofactor) in man; effects of venous trombosis of heparin administration. Eur J Clin Invest,1977;7:27-35.

Conard J, Le Compte T, Horellou MH, et al. Antithrombin III in patients treated with subcutaneous or intravenous heparin. Thromb Res,1981; 22:507-11.

Leckie RS, DiNardo JA. Comparative effects of preoperative intravenous heparin and nitroglycerin therapy on heparin response in patients undergoing CABG surgery (abstract 79) in proceeding of the tenth Annual Meeting of the society of Cardiovasculer Anesthesia, Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesia,1988;p:79.

Anderson EF. Heparin resistance prior to cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesthesiology,1986; 64:504-7.

Mentes FR, Levy JH. Can we alter heparin dose responses with antithrombin III (abstract)? Anesth Analg,1996;82: SCA 94.

Levy JH. Novel intravenous antithrombins. Am Heart J, 2001;141:1043-7.

Levy JH. Hemostatic agents and their safety. J Cardiothorac Anesth,1999;13 (Suppll):6-11.

Weitz JI, Huboda M, Massel D, Marganone J, Hirsh J. Clot-bound thrombin is protected from inhibition by heparin-antithrombin III but is susceptible to inactivation by antithrombin III-independent inhibitors J Clin Invest,1990; 86:385-91.

Kayaalp SO. Antitrombotik ilaçlar, Tıbbi Farmakoloji. 4. Baskı, Ankara: Feryal Matbaacılık,1988; p:1322-63.

Jeppsson A, Rocca B, Hansson EC, et al, EACTS Scientific Document Group, 2024 EACTS Guidelines on perioperative medication in adult cardiac surgery, European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 2024; ezae355.

Jarvis B, Simpson K. Clopidogrel: A review of its use in the prevention of atherothrombosis. Drugs, 2000; 60:347-77.

Levy JH, Montes F, Szlar F, Hillyer C. Invitro effects of antithrombin III on the activated coagulation time in patients on heparin therapy. Anesth Analg, 2000; 90:1076-9.

Chen A, Stecker E, A Warden B. Direct Oral Anticoagulant Use: A Practical Guide to Common Clinical Challenges. J Am Heart Assoc. 2020; 9(13):e017559.

Lopes RD, Heizer G, Aronson R, et al. AUGUSTUS Investigators. Antithrombotic Therapy after Acute Coronary Syndrome or PCI in Atrial Fibrillation. N Engl J Med, 2019;380(16):1509-1524.

Eikelboom JW, Connolly SJ, Brueckmann M, et al. RE-ALIGN Investigators. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with mechanical heart valves. N Engl J Med, 2013; 369(13):1206-14.

Racanelli A, Fareed J Walenga JM, Coyne E. Bio-chemical and pharmacologic studies on the protamine interactions with heparin, its fractions and fragment. Semin Thromb Hemost,1985; 11:176-89.

Cobel-Geard RJ, Hassouna HI. Interaction of protamine sulfate with thrombin. Am J Hematol,1983;14:227-33.

Aren C,Feddersen K, Radegran K. Comparison of two protocols for heparin neutralization by protamine after cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,1987; 94:539-41.

Casthely PA, Goodman K, Fyman PN, et al. Hemodynamic changes after the administration of protamine. Anesth Analg,1986; 65:78-80.

Morel DR, Zapol WM, Thomas SJ et al. C5a and thromboxane generation associated with pulmonary vaso-and bronchoconstriction during protamine reversal of heparin. Anesthesiology,1987; 66:597604.

Horrow JC. Heparin reversal of protamine toxicity: Have we come full circle? J Cardiothorac Anesth,1990; 4:539-41.

Levy JH, Carmack JG, Morates A. Heparin neutralization by platelet factor 4 and protamine. Anesth Analg,1995; 81:35-7.

Levy JH. Pharmacologic preservation of the hemostatic system during cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg, 2001;72:S1814-20.

Crivellari M, Landoni G, D’Andria Ursoleo J, Ferrante L, Oriani, A. Protamine and Heparin Interactions: A Narrative Review. Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia, 2024;27(3):p 202-212.

Siddiqui F, Hoppensteadt D, Jeske W, Ramacciotti E, Tafur A, Fareed J. Andexanet Alfa Neutralizes the Anticoagulant Effects of Unfractionated Heparin of Bovine, Ovine and Porcine Origin Almost as Protamine Sulfate. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2024;30:10760296241247558.

Levi M, Cromheecke ME, de Jange E, et al. Pharmacological strategies to decrease extensive blood loss in cardiac surgery a meta analysis of clinically relevant end points. Lancet,1999; 354:1940-2.

Koköfer A, Rodemund N, Cozowicz C. et al. Desmopressin use in major cardiac surgery is associated with renal impairment: a retrospective single-center analysis. BMC Anesthesiol, 2024; 24;357.

Bick L. Hemostasis defects associated with cardiac surgery, prostetic devices, and other extracorporeal devices. Semin Thromb Hemost,1985;11:249-86.

Horrow J. Transfusion medicine and coagulation disorders. In: Kaplan JA, Konstadt SN, Reich DL (eds). Cardiac Anesthesia 4th ed Philadelphia: WB Saunders,1999;pp:1111-55.

Tagagi H, Manabe H, Kawai N, Goto SN, Umemoto T. Aprotinin increases mortality as compared with tranexamic acid in cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized head-to-head trials. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg,2009; 9:98-101.

Levy JH, Bailey JM, Salmenperra M. Pharmacokinetics of aprotinin in preoperative cardiac surgical patients. Anesthesiology,1994; 80:1013-8.

Mojcile C, Levy JH. Systemic inflammatory response syndrome and anti-inflammatory strategies. Ann Thorac Surg, 2001;71:745-54.

Van Oeveren W, Harder MP, Roozendaal KJ et al. Aprotinin protects platelets against the initial effect of cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,1990;99:788-96; discussion 796-7.

Despotis GJ, Alsoufiev A, Goodnough LT et al. Aprotinin prolongs whole blood activated partial thromboplastin time but not whole blood prothrombin time in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg,1995; 81:919-24.

Despotis GJ, Filos FS, Lewine V et al. Aprotinin prolongs activated and nonactivated whole bood clotting time and potentiates the effect of heparin in vitro. Anesth Analg,1996; 2:1126-31.

Tabuchi N, Njo TL, Tigchelear I, et al. Monitoring of anticoagulation in aprotinin-treated patients during heart operation. Ann Thorac Surg,1994;58:774-7.

Feindt PR, Walcher S, Volkmer I, et al. Effects of highdose aprotinin on renal function in aortocoronary bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg,1995; 60:1076-80.

Henry DA, Carless PA, Moxey AJ, O’Connell D, Stokes BJ, Fergusson DA, Ker K. Antifibrinolytic use for minimising perioperative allogenic blood transfusion. CochraneDatabase Syst Rev,2011;16;(3): CD001886.

Lier H, Maegele M, Shander A. Tranexamic acid for acute hemorrhage: a narrative review of landmark studies and a critical reappraisal of its use over the last decade. Anesth Analg,2019;129:1574–1584.

Fiechtner BK, Nuttall GA, Johnson ME, et al. Plasma tranexamic acid concentrations during cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesth Analg,2001;92:1131–1136.

Eriksson O, Kjellman H, Pilbrant A, Schannong M. Pharmacokinetics of tranexamic acid after intravenous administration to normal volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol,1974;7:375–380.

Guo J, Gao X, Ma Y, et al. Different dose regimes and administration methods of tranexamic acid in cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. BMC Anesthesiol, 2019;19:129.

Wesley MC, Pereira LM, Scharp LA, Emani SM, McGowan FX Jr, DiNardo JA. Pharmacokinetics of tranexamic acid in neonates, infants, and children undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesthesiology, 2015;122:746–758.

Faraoni D, Meier J, New HV, Van der Linden PJ, Hunt BJ. Patient blood management for neonates and children undergoing cardiac surgery: 2019 NATA guidelines. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2019;33:3249–3263.

Update on Applications and Limitations of Perioperative Tranexamic Acid.Patel PA, Wyrobek JA, Butwick AJ, et al. Anesth. Analg, 2022;135(3):460-473.

Tibi P, McClure RS, Huang J, et al. STS/SCA/AmSECT/SABM update to the clinical practice guidelines on patient blood management. Ann Thorac Surg,2021;112:981–1004.

Ahn KT, Yamanaka K, Iwakura A, et al. Usefulness of intraoperative continuous infusion of tranexamic acid during emergency surgery for type A acute aortic dissection. Ann Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 2015;21:66–71.

Nicolau-Raducu R, Subramaniam K, Marquez J, Wells C, Hilmi I, Sullivan E. Safety and efficacy of tranexamic acid compared with aprotinin in thoracic aortic surgery with deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2010;24:73–79.

Myles PS, Smith JA, Forbes A, et al.; ATACAS Investigators of the ANZCA Clinical Trials Network. Tranexamic acid in patients undergoing coronary-artery surgery. N Engl J Med, 2017;376:136–148.

Hedner U. NovoSeven as a universal haemostatic agent. Blood Coagul Fibrinol, 2000;11 (suppl l): S 107-11.

Ponschab M, Landoni G, Biondi-Zoccai G, et al. Recombinant activated factor VII increases stroke in cardiac surgery: a meta analysis. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 2011;25(5):804-10.

Fralick M, Schneeweiss S, Wallis CJD, et al. Desmopressin and the risk of hyponatremia: A population-based cohort study. PLoS Med, 2019; 16: e1002930.

Denmeyere R, Gillardin S, Arnout J, Strengers PF. Comparison of fresh frozen plasma and prothamin complex concentratefor reversal of oral anticoagulants in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass surgery: a randomized study. Wox Sang, 2010; 99:251-60.

Bruce D, Nokes TJ. Protrombin complex concentrate (Beriplex P/N) in severe bleeding: experience in large tertiary hospital. Crit care,2008;12: R105.