Toprak Organik Maddesi
Özet
Toprak organik maddesi (TOM) bitki, hayvan ve mikroorganizmaların kalıntılarının farklı ayrışma ürünlerinden oluşan karbon açısından zengin, stabil ve stabil olmayan humusun meydana geldiği toprağın en aktif ve kritik bir bileşenidir. Toprağın küçük bir bölümünü oluşturmasına rağmen, fiziksel, kimyasal ve biyolojik özellikleri üzerinde derin bir etkiye sahiptir. TOM’si, toprak verimliliğinin sürdürülmesi, toprak yapısının iyileştirilmesi, su tutma kapasitesinin artırılması ve mikrobiyal faaliyetlerin desteklenmesi açısından önemli bir rol oynar. Organik maddenin ayrışması, bitki büyümesi için hayati önem taşıyan Azot (N), Fosfor (P) ve Kükürt (S) gibi temel besin maddelerinin yarayışlı forma dönüşümünde etkilidir. Ayrıca, toprağın katyon değişim kapasitesini (KDK) artırarak besin maddelerini etkili bir şekilde tutmasını sağlar. Bunun yanı sıra, TOM’si toprak agregasyonunu iyileştirerek erozyonu önler ve havalanmayı teşvik eder, bu da kök gelişimine katkı sunar. Çevresel açıdan ise, TOM’si bir karbon yutağı görevi görür ve atmosferdeki CO2 seviyelerine katkıda bulunabilecek karbonu depolayarak iklim değişikliğini hafifletmeye yardımcı olur. Su tutma kapasitesini artırmadaki rolü, özellikle kurak bölgelerde sürdürülebilir su yönetimi için büyük önem taşır. Dünya’da çok düşük düzeyde dağılım gösteren organik topraklarda karbon döngüsünde önemli roller üstelenmektedir. TOM’nin etkin bir şekilde yönetilmesi, organik madde girdilerini (örneğin, bitki artıkları, kompost ve yeşil gübre) kayıplarını en aza indiren süreçlerle dengeleyen uygulamaları gerektirir. Bu tür uygulamalara azaltılmış toprak işleme ve ekim nöbeti dahildir. TOM’nin korunması, uzun vadeli toprak verimliliğinin sağlanması ve ekosistem sağlığının sürdürülmesi için esastır. Sonuç olarak, TOM’sinin varlığı sürdürülebilir tarımın, iklim değişikliğinin azaltılması, ekosistem hizmetlerinin sürekliliği ve çevrenin korunmasında temel unsurdur.
Referanslar
Condron L, Stark C, O’Callaghan M, Clinton P, Huang Z. The role of microbial communities in the formation and decomposition of soil organic matter. In Soil microbiology and sustainable crop production; Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2010. pp. 81-118.
Lehmann J, Bossio DA, Kögel-Knabner I, Rillig MC. The concept and future prospects of soil health. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 2020;1(10), 544-553.
Xing Y, Wang X, Mustafa A. Exploring the link between soil health and crop productivity. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.2025;289, 117703.
Berryman E, Hatten J, Page-Dumroese DS, Heckman KA, D’Amore DV, Puttere J, Domke GM. Soil carbon. In Forest and rangeland soils of the United States under changing conditions: A comprehensive science synthesis. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. pp. 9-31.
Githongo M, Kiboi M, Muriuki A, Fliessbach A, Musafiri C, Ngetich F K. Organic carbon content in fractions of soils managed for soil fertility improvement in sub-humid agroecosystems of Kenya. Sustainability. 2022;15(1), 683.
Huang R, Li W, Niu M, Hu B. Organic Farming to Improve Soil Quality and the Functional Structure of Soil Microbial Communities. Agriculture. 2025;15(13), 1381.
Murphy BW. Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties—a review with emphasis on Australian soils. Soil Research. 2015;53(6), 605-635.
Şeker C, Ersoy İG, Zengin M. Mısır Bitkisinin İlk Gelişimine Kompostlaştırılmış Tuzlu Tavuk Gübresinin Etkisi. Selçuk Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 2005;19(37), 113-117.
Erel A, Kara EEK. Tavuk Gübresinin Bazı Toprak Özelliklerine ve Yulaf Kuru Bitki Ağırlığına Etkisi. ANADOLU Ege Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Dergisi. 1999;9(2), 91-104
Bot A, Benites J. The importance of soil organic matter: Key to drought-resistant soil and sustained food production. 2024; No. 80. Food & Agriculture Org., FAO Soil Bulletin, 80. 2005
Todd A, Schulte Lisa A. Soil carbon storage. The Nature Education Knowledge Project. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Retrieved 8 December 2024. 2012.
Loveland P, Webb J. Is there a critical level of organic matter in the agricultural soils of temperate regions: a review. Soil Tillage Res. 2003;70,1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00139-3.
Murphy B.W. Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties–a review with emphasis on Australian soils. Soil Res. 2015;53, 605–635. https://doi.org/10.1071/ SR14246.
Oelofse M, Markussen B, Knudsen L, Schelde K, Olesen J.E, Jensen L.S, Bruun S. Do soil organic carbon levels affect potential yields and nitrogen use efficiency? An analysis of winter wheat and spring barley field trials. Eur. J. Agron. 2015;66: 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2015.02.009.
Quideau SA, Chadwick OA, Benesi A, Graham RC, Anderson MA. A direct link between forest vegetation type and soil organic matter composition. Geoderma. 2001;104(1-2), 41-60.
Farnham RS, Finney HR. Classification and properties of organic soils. Advances in Agronomy. 1965; 17: 115-162.
Oğuz H. Toprak bilgisi ders notu. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi; 2008. s. 1-53.
IUSS. Working Group WRB. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. 4th edition. International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), Vienna, Austria. 2022.
Soil Survey Staff. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 13th ed. USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, USA. 2022.
da Silva Neto, EC, dos Anjos LHC, Calegari MR, Horák-Terra I, de Oliveira FS, Valladares GS, Pereira MG. 2024. Organic soils in Southeastern Brazilian highlands: formation and relations to vegetation history. Catena, 237, 107786.
Martini IP, Martínez Cortizas A. Chesworth W. Peatlands: A Concise Guide to the Volume; Developments in Earth Surface Processes: New York, NY, USA, 2006. pp. 1–13.
Çolakoğlu H. Organo-mineral gübre üretimine yeni yaklaşımlar. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestıy. 1996;20, 25-28.
Akalan İ. Toprak Bilgisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, 1987;1058, Ankara.
Nieder R, Benbi D. K, Isermann K. Soil organic matter dynamics. In Handbook of processes and modeling in the soil-plant system; CRC Press. 2024. pp. 345-408.
Anjum, Khan, A. Decomposition of soil organic matter is modulated by soil amendments. Carbon Management. 2021;12(1): 37-50.
Prescott CE, Vesterdal L. Decomposition and transformations along the continuum from litter to soil organic matter in forest soils. Forest Ecology and Management. 2021. 498, 119522.
Anonim. USDA, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Organic Practices Reports, https://www.usda.gov/farming-and-ranching/organic-farming, 2015, (Erişim Tarihi: 12.11.2024)
Möhring N, Muller A, Schaub S. Farmers’ adoption of organic agriculture-a systematic global literature review. European Review of Agricultural Economics. 2024. 51(4), 1012-1044.
Strosser E. Methods for determination of labile soil organic matter: an overview. Journal of Agrobiology. 2010; 27(2), 49.
İnce F. Toprak Bilgisi Kitabı. Harran Üniversitesi Şanlıurfa Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Kitapları, Şanlıurfa. 1992.
Erpul G, Akça E, Tekin SN, Karaman N.A. Canlı P, Morkoç S, Kavaklı Karataş Z. Araz¬i Tahri-batının Dengelenmes¬i Karar Destek Si¬stem¬ İl İstat¬ist¬ikler¬ ve Sürdürülebi¬li¬r Araz¬i Yöneti¬m¬ Yaklaşımları ve Uygulamaları, Çölleşme ve Erozyonla Mücadele Genel Müdürlüğü Yayınları, Ankara. 2023.
Gerke J. The central role of soil organic matter in soil fertility and carbon storage. Soil Systems. 2022; 6(2): 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6020033
Hijbeek R, Pronk AA, Van Ittersum MK, ten Berge HFM, Bijttebier J, Verhagen A. What drives farmers to increase soil organic matter? Insights from the Netherlands. Soil Use and Management. 2018;34(1), 85-100.
Hoffland E, Kuyper TW, Comans RN, Creamer RE. Eco-functionality of organic matter in soils. Plant and Soil. 2020;455(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-020-04651-9.
Mizuta K, Taguchi S, Sato S. Soil aggregate formation and stability induced by starch and cellulose. Soil Biol Biochem. 2015;87: 90–96.
Walkley A, Black IA. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science; 1934; 37(1), 29-38.
Tinsley J. The determination of organic carbon in soils by dichromate mixtures. Trans. 4th Intern. Cong. Soil Sci. 1950;1: 161-164.
Mebius LJ. A rapid method for the determination of organic carbon in soils. Anal. Chim. Acta. 1960;22: 120-124.
Schulte EE. Hopkins B.G. Estimation of soil organic matter by weight Organic Matter (LOI)3 loss-on- ignition. In: F.R. Magdoff, M.A. Tabatabai, and E.A. Hanlon, Jr. (eds.), Soil Organic Matter: Analysis and Interpretation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.; Madison, WI; 1996. pp.21-31.
Nelson DW, Sommers LE. Total Carbon, Organic Carbon, and Organic Matter. In: Sparks, D.L., et al., (Eds)., Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3. Chemical Methods, SSSA Book Series No. 5, SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI; 1996. pp. 961-1010.
Santoiemma G. Recent methodologies for studying the soil organic matter. Applied Soil Ecology. 2018; 123, 546-550.
Wielopolski L, Orion I, Hendrey G, Roger H. Soil carbon measurements using inelastic neutron scattering. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science. 2000;47(3), 914-917.
Schumacher BA. Methods for the determination of total organic carbon (TOC) in soils and sediments; Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Ecological Risk Assessment Support Center. 2002. pp. 1-23.
Chenu C, Rumpel C, Védère C, Barré P. Methods for studying soil organic matter: nature, dynamics, spatial accessibility, and interactions with minerals. In Soil microbiology, ecology and biochemistry;2024. pp. 369-406.
Krauss M, Wiesmeier M, Don A, Cuperus F, Gattinger A, Gruber S, Steffens M. Reduced tillage in organic farming affects soil organic carbon stocks in temperate Europe. Soil and Tillage Research. 2022. 216, 105262.
ÇEM. Toprak Organik Karbonu Projesi, Teknik Özet. Çölleşme ve Erozyonla Mücadele Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara, Türkiye. 2018.
Beillouin D, Cardinael R, Berre D, Boyer A, Corbeels M, Fallot A, Demenois JA. Global overview of studies about land management, land use change, and climate change effects on soil organic carbon. Global Change Biology. 2022;28(4), 1690-1702.
Zhang Q, Feng J, Li J, Huang CY, Shen Y, Cheng W, Zhu BA. Distinct sensitivity to the priming effect between labile and stable soil organic carbon. New Phytologist. 2023;237(1), 88-99.
Referanslar
Condron L, Stark C, O’Callaghan M, Clinton P, Huang Z. The role of microbial communities in the formation and decomposition of soil organic matter. In Soil microbiology and sustainable crop production; Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2010. pp. 81-118.
Lehmann J, Bossio DA, Kögel-Knabner I, Rillig MC. The concept and future prospects of soil health. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 2020;1(10), 544-553.
Xing Y, Wang X, Mustafa A. Exploring the link between soil health and crop productivity. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.2025;289, 117703.
Berryman E, Hatten J, Page-Dumroese DS, Heckman KA, D’Amore DV, Puttere J, Domke GM. Soil carbon. In Forest and rangeland soils of the United States under changing conditions: A comprehensive science synthesis. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. pp. 9-31.
Githongo M, Kiboi M, Muriuki A, Fliessbach A, Musafiri C, Ngetich F K. Organic carbon content in fractions of soils managed for soil fertility improvement in sub-humid agroecosystems of Kenya. Sustainability. 2022;15(1), 683.
Huang R, Li W, Niu M, Hu B. Organic Farming to Improve Soil Quality and the Functional Structure of Soil Microbial Communities. Agriculture. 2025;15(13), 1381.
Murphy BW. Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties—a review with emphasis on Australian soils. Soil Research. 2015;53(6), 605-635.
Şeker C, Ersoy İG, Zengin M. Mısır Bitkisinin İlk Gelişimine Kompostlaştırılmış Tuzlu Tavuk Gübresinin Etkisi. Selçuk Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 2005;19(37), 113-117.
Erel A, Kara EEK. Tavuk Gübresinin Bazı Toprak Özelliklerine ve Yulaf Kuru Bitki Ağırlığına Etkisi. ANADOLU Ege Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Dergisi. 1999;9(2), 91-104
Bot A, Benites J. The importance of soil organic matter: Key to drought-resistant soil and sustained food production. 2024; No. 80. Food & Agriculture Org., FAO Soil Bulletin, 80. 2005
Todd A, Schulte Lisa A. Soil carbon storage. The Nature Education Knowledge Project. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Retrieved 8 December 2024. 2012.
Loveland P, Webb J. Is there a critical level of organic matter in the agricultural soils of temperate regions: a review. Soil Tillage Res. 2003;70,1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00139-3.
Murphy B.W. Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties–a review with emphasis on Australian soils. Soil Res. 2015;53, 605–635. https://doi.org/10.1071/ SR14246.
Oelofse M, Markussen B, Knudsen L, Schelde K, Olesen J.E, Jensen L.S, Bruun S. Do soil organic carbon levels affect potential yields and nitrogen use efficiency? An analysis of winter wheat and spring barley field trials. Eur. J. Agron. 2015;66: 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2015.02.009.
Quideau SA, Chadwick OA, Benesi A, Graham RC, Anderson MA. A direct link between forest vegetation type and soil organic matter composition. Geoderma. 2001;104(1-2), 41-60.
Farnham RS, Finney HR. Classification and properties of organic soils. Advances in Agronomy. 1965; 17: 115-162.
Oğuz H. Toprak bilgisi ders notu. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi; 2008. s. 1-53.
IUSS. Working Group WRB. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. 4th edition. International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), Vienna, Austria. 2022.
Soil Survey Staff. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 13th ed. USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, USA. 2022.
da Silva Neto, EC, dos Anjos LHC, Calegari MR, Horák-Terra I, de Oliveira FS, Valladares GS, Pereira MG. 2024. Organic soils in Southeastern Brazilian highlands: formation and relations to vegetation history. Catena, 237, 107786.
Martini IP, Martínez Cortizas A. Chesworth W. Peatlands: A Concise Guide to the Volume; Developments in Earth Surface Processes: New York, NY, USA, 2006. pp. 1–13.
Çolakoğlu H. Organo-mineral gübre üretimine yeni yaklaşımlar. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestıy. 1996;20, 25-28.
Akalan İ. Toprak Bilgisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, 1987;1058, Ankara.
Nieder R, Benbi D. K, Isermann K. Soil organic matter dynamics. In Handbook of processes and modeling in the soil-plant system; CRC Press. 2024. pp. 345-408.
Anjum, Khan, A. Decomposition of soil organic matter is modulated by soil amendments. Carbon Management. 2021;12(1): 37-50.
Prescott CE, Vesterdal L. Decomposition and transformations along the continuum from litter to soil organic matter in forest soils. Forest Ecology and Management. 2021. 498, 119522.
Anonim. USDA, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Organic Practices Reports, https://www.usda.gov/farming-and-ranching/organic-farming, 2015, (Erişim Tarihi: 12.11.2024)
Möhring N, Muller A, Schaub S. Farmers’ adoption of organic agriculture-a systematic global literature review. European Review of Agricultural Economics. 2024. 51(4), 1012-1044.
Strosser E. Methods for determination of labile soil organic matter: an overview. Journal of Agrobiology. 2010; 27(2), 49.
İnce F. Toprak Bilgisi Kitabı. Harran Üniversitesi Şanlıurfa Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Kitapları, Şanlıurfa. 1992.
Erpul G, Akça E, Tekin SN, Karaman N.A. Canlı P, Morkoç S, Kavaklı Karataş Z. Araz¬i Tahri-batının Dengelenmes¬i Karar Destek Si¬stem¬ İl İstat¬ist¬ikler¬ ve Sürdürülebi¬li¬r Araz¬i Yöneti¬m¬ Yaklaşımları ve Uygulamaları, Çölleşme ve Erozyonla Mücadele Genel Müdürlüğü Yayınları, Ankara. 2023.
Gerke J. The central role of soil organic matter in soil fertility and carbon storage. Soil Systems. 2022; 6(2): 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6020033
Hijbeek R, Pronk AA, Van Ittersum MK, ten Berge HFM, Bijttebier J, Verhagen A. What drives farmers to increase soil organic matter? Insights from the Netherlands. Soil Use and Management. 2018;34(1), 85-100.
Hoffland E, Kuyper TW, Comans RN, Creamer RE. Eco-functionality of organic matter in soils. Plant and Soil. 2020;455(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-020-04651-9.
Mizuta K, Taguchi S, Sato S. Soil aggregate formation and stability induced by starch and cellulose. Soil Biol Biochem. 2015;87: 90–96.
Walkley A, Black IA. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science; 1934; 37(1), 29-38.
Tinsley J. The determination of organic carbon in soils by dichromate mixtures. Trans. 4th Intern. Cong. Soil Sci. 1950;1: 161-164.
Mebius LJ. A rapid method for the determination of organic carbon in soils. Anal. Chim. Acta. 1960;22: 120-124.
Schulte EE. Hopkins B.G. Estimation of soil organic matter by weight Organic Matter (LOI)3 loss-on- ignition. In: F.R. Magdoff, M.A. Tabatabai, and E.A. Hanlon, Jr. (eds.), Soil Organic Matter: Analysis and Interpretation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.; Madison, WI; 1996. pp.21-31.
Nelson DW, Sommers LE. Total Carbon, Organic Carbon, and Organic Matter. In: Sparks, D.L., et al., (Eds)., Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3. Chemical Methods, SSSA Book Series No. 5, SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI; 1996. pp. 961-1010.
Santoiemma G. Recent methodologies for studying the soil organic matter. Applied Soil Ecology. 2018; 123, 546-550.
Wielopolski L, Orion I, Hendrey G, Roger H. Soil carbon measurements using inelastic neutron scattering. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science. 2000;47(3), 914-917.
Schumacher BA. Methods for the determination of total organic carbon (TOC) in soils and sediments; Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Ecological Risk Assessment Support Center. 2002. pp. 1-23.
Chenu C, Rumpel C, Védère C, Barré P. Methods for studying soil organic matter: nature, dynamics, spatial accessibility, and interactions with minerals. In Soil microbiology, ecology and biochemistry;2024. pp. 369-406.
Krauss M, Wiesmeier M, Don A, Cuperus F, Gattinger A, Gruber S, Steffens M. Reduced tillage in organic farming affects soil organic carbon stocks in temperate Europe. Soil and Tillage Research. 2022. 216, 105262.
ÇEM. Toprak Organik Karbonu Projesi, Teknik Özet. Çölleşme ve Erozyonla Mücadele Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara, Türkiye. 2018.
Beillouin D, Cardinael R, Berre D, Boyer A, Corbeels M, Fallot A, Demenois JA. Global overview of studies about land management, land use change, and climate change effects on soil organic carbon. Global Change Biology. 2022;28(4), 1690-1702.
Zhang Q, Feng J, Li J, Huang CY, Shen Y, Cheng W, Zhu BA. Distinct sensitivity to the priming effect between labile and stable soil organic carbon. New Phytologist. 2023;237(1), 88-99.
