Toprak Suyu
Özet
Su, ekosistemlerin ve bitkisel üretimin devamlılığı için vazgeçilmez bir kaynaktır. Toprak suyu; toprak oluşumu, mineral ayrışması, organik maddenin döngüsü ve mikroorganizma faaliyetleri gibi pek çok süreci etkileyen temel bir unsurdur. Toprak su içeriği farklı yöntemlerle ölçülmekte; gravimetrik, alçı blokları, nötron saçılımı ve TDR/FDR gibi teknikler bu alanda yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Suyun topraktaki tutulma ve hareketi, toprak suyu potansiyeli bileşenleri (yerçekimi, basınç, matrik ve ozmotik potansiyeller) ile açıklanmaktadır. Tarla kapasitesi, solma noktası ve yarayışlı su miktarı kavramları bitkilerin suya erişimi ve sulama yönetimi açısından kritik öneme sahiptir. Toprakta suyun hareketi (doygun/doymamış akış, buharlaşma, infiltrasyon, perkolasyon) ile kayıplar (evaporasyon ve transpirasyon) ekosistemlerde su dengesini belirlemektedir. Bitki büyümesi, verimlilik ve toprak verimliliği doğrudan toprak suyu ile ilişkilidir. Ayrıca, toprak suyu çeşitleri (higroskopik, kapillar, durgun ve taban suyu) bitki gelişimi açısından farklı düzeylerde yarayışlılık göstermektedir. Bu bölüm, toprak suyunun ekosistem işlevlerindeki rolünü, ölçüm ve yönetim yaklaşımlarını bütüncül olarak ele almaktadır.
Referanslar
Kırda C, Sariyev A. Toprak Fiziği. Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Genel Yayın. No. 245; 2002.
Erşahin S. Toprak Amenajmanı. GOÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Notları Serisi Tokat; 2001. 21:44-57.
Brady N, Weil RR. The nature and properties of soils. 13 Edic. Prentince Hall. 2002; New Jersey, USA. 598p.
Hillel, D. Fundamentals of soil physics. Academic press.2013
Gardner WH. Water content. Methods of soil analysis: Part 1 Physical and mineralogical properties, including statistics of measurement and sampling. 1965;9, 82-127.
USDA. United States Department of Agriculture. Soil Classification, Tools and Data. 2015; https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/survey/tools/ (ErişimTarihi 20.11.2024).
Gardner WH. Water Content. Chapter 21 in Methods of Soil Analysis, Part I, Physical and Mineralogical Methods. American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America. 1986; Madison, WI, USA.
Yetik AK, Aşık M. Toprak Nem İçeriğinin İzlenmesi ve Tayininde Kullanılan Yöntemler. Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2021; 8(1), 484-496.
Al-Kaisi M. How to evaluate soil moisture in the field. Iowa State University. 2000; https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/how-evaluate-soil-moisture-field.
Fiscbach P. EC71-752 Scheduling irrigation by electrical resistance blocks. Historical Materialsfrom University of Nebraska- Lincoln Extension.1971.
Martin E. Methods of Measuring for Irrigation Scheduling--WHEN. Arizona Cooperative extension. the university of arizona, tucson, arizona water series. 2009; no. 30.
Şener S. Menemen Koşullarında Tansiyometrelerin ve Alçı Bloklarının Pamuk ve Bağın Sulama Zamanlarının Saptanmasında Kullanılması. Menemen Bölge TOPRAKSU 88 Araştırma Enst. Yayınları, Gen. Yayın. 1985; No: 114, Rapor Serisi NO: 77, Menemen, izmir, 37 Syf.
Allen RG. Irrigation Engineering Principles. Course Lecture Notes. Department of Biological and Irrigation Engineering, Utah State University, Logan.1998; Utah, USA. p. 298
Werner H. Measuring soil moisture for irrigation water management. Cooperative Extension Service, South Dakota State University. 1992; US Department of Agriculture.
Van Bavel CH, Nixon PR, Nixon PR, Hauser VL, Hauser VL. Soil moisture measurement with the neutron method (Vol. 70). Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture.1963
Evett SR, Steıner JL. Precision of neutron scattering and capacitance type soil water content gauges from field calibration. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1995; 59/4, July-August, 1995, pp. 961-968.
Jayawardane NS, Meyer WS, Barrs HD. Moisture measurement in a swelling clay soil using neutron moisture meters. Soil research. 1984;22(2), 109-117.
Li J, Smith DW, Fityus SG. The effect of a gap between the access tube and the soil during neutron probe measurements. Soil Research. 2003;41(1), 151-164.
Su SL, Singh DN, Baghini MS. A critical review of soil moisture measurement. Measurement. 2014;54, 92-105.
Fityus S, Wells T, Huang W. Water content measurement in expansive soils using the neutron probe. Geotechnical Testing Journal. 2011;34(3), 255-264.
Grossman RB, Reinsch TG. Bulk density and linear extensibility. Section 2.1 in Methods of Soil Analysis J. H. Dane, and G. C. Topp, eds. Madison, Wis.: Soil Sci. Soc. America. 2002; Part 4: Physical Methods, 201-228.
Muñoz-Carpena R, Field devices for monitoring soil water content. EDIS. 2004; 8.
Smith RE, Warrick AW. Soil water relationships. In Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems, 2nd Edition. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers; 2007. pp. 120-159.
Aydın M, Aydın G, Erşahin S, Karahan G. Toprak Amenajmanı içinde. Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi; 2015. p. 227-276.
Evett, S. Some keys to excellence in neutron probe calibration. USDA, Bushland, TX, USA. 1998; p.4.
Hanson BR, Peters D. Measuring soil moisture. Irrigation Association Technical Conference Proceedings. November 1-3, 1998, San Diego, California, USA, pp. 103-110.
Topp GC, Davıs JL, Annan AP. Elektromagnetic determination of soil water content: Measurement in coaxial transmission lines. Water Resour. Res. 1980; 16: 574-582
Or D, Wraith JM. Soil physics. Agricultural and Environmental Department of Plants, Soils and Biometerology. 1998; Utah State University, Logan, USA, p. 243.
Hoekstra P, Delaney A. Dielectric properties of soils at UHF and microwave frequencies. J. Geophys. Res. 1974;79, 1699-1708.
Zegelin SJ, White I, Russell GF. A critique of the time domain reflectometry technique for determining field soil‐water content. Advances in measurement of soil physical properties: bringing theory into practice. 1992;30, 187-208.
Mead, R. Soil moisture instrumentation: Irrigation Journal Sensors and Strategies for The 21st Century. Sep./Oct.1998.
Hanson BR, Peters D. Measuring soil moisture. Irrigation Association Technical Conference Proceedings. November 1-3, 1998; San Diego, California, USA, pp. 103-110.
Hillel D. Introduction to environmental soil physics. Elsevier. 2003
Telford WM, Geldart LP, Sheriff RE. Applied geophysics. Cambridge university press. 1990
Sposito G. The chemistry of soils. Oxford university press.2008
Mualem Y. The use of tensiometer readout for irrigation- Success and Failure. 5th International Conference on Irrigation Proceedings, 26-27 March 1990, Tel-Aviv, Israel. 118-130.
Richards LA, Gardner W. Tensiometers for Measuring the Capillary Tension of Soil Water 1. Agronomy Journal. 1936;28(5), 352-358.
Kirkham MB. Principles of soil and plant water relations. Academic Press. 2014
Nope, 16. (fotoğrafçı), 2014, Ağustos 26. Soil Water Tension (Tensiometers) in vegetable garden. (Dijital görsel). 213067534. Shuttterstock. 27.11.2024
Cassell DK, Klute A. Water potential: tensiometry. methods of soil analysis, Part I. Physical and Mineralogical Methods. Agronomy Monograph No. 9. 2nd Edition. American Society of Agronomy -Soil Science Society of America. Madison Wisconsin USA, 1986. Section 23: pp. 563-588
Richards SJ. Soil suction measurements with tensiometers. In Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Properties, Including Statistics of Measurement and Sampling American Society of Agronomy. 1965; (Black CA, Evans DD, Ensminger LE, White JL, and Clark FE, Eds.), 153–163.Madison, Wisconsin.
Koorevaar P, Menelik G, Dirksen C. Elements of soil physics. Elsevier.1983
McBratney, A. B., Minasny, B., Cattle, S. R., Vervoort, R. W. From pedotransfer functions to soil inference systems. Geoderma. 2002; 109(1-2), 41-73.
Munsuz, N. Toprak mekaniği ve teknolojisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları. 1985
Öztekin T, Cemek B, Brown L. Pedotransfer functions for the hydraulic properties of layered soils. GOÜ. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 2007;24(2), 77-86.
Helling CS, Gish TJ. Physical and chemical processes affecting preferential flow.
Sidle RC, Noguchi S, Tsuboyama Y, Laursen K. A conceptual model of preferential flow systems in forested hillslopes: Evidence of self‐organization. Hydrological Processes. 2001;15(10), 1675-1692.
Beven K, Germann P. Macropores and water flow in soils. Water resources research. 1982; 18(5), 1311-1325.
Dunne T, Zhang W, Aubry BF. Effects of rainfall, vegetation, and microtopography on infiltration and runoff. Water Resources Research. 1991; 27(9), 2271-2285.
Mao LL, Lei TW, Bralts VF. An analytical approximation method for the linear source soil infiltrability measurement and its application. Journal of Hydrology. 2011; 411(3-4), 169-177.
Williams JR, Kannan N, Wang X, Santhi C, Arnold JG. Evolution of the SCS runoff curve number method and its application to continuous runoff simulation. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering. 2012;17(11), 1221-1229.
Aydin M. Hydraulic properties and water balance of a clay soil cropped with cotton. Irrigation Science. 1994;15, 17-23.
Karaman MR, Brohi AR, Müftüoğlu NM, Öztaş T, Zengin M. Sürdürülebilir toprak verimliliği kitabı. Koyulhisar Ziraat Odası Kültür Yayınları No:1 Güncellenmiş, 3. Baskı. 2012; 42-43.
Lowery B, Hickey WJ, Arshad MA. Lal R. Soil water parameters and soil quality. Methods for assessing soil quality. 1997;49, 143-155.
Bengough AG, McKenzie BM, Hallett PD, Valentine TA. Root elongation, water stress, and mechanical impedance: a review of limiting stresses and beneficial root tip traits. Journal of experimental botany. 2011; 62(1), 59-68.
Mengel K, Kirkby EA, Kosegarten H, Appel T. Plant nutrients. Principles of plant nutrition. 2001; 1-13.
Marschner H. (Ed.). Marschner's mineral nutrition of higher plants. 3rd Edition Academic press. 2011.
Kantarcı MD. Toprak ilmi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Yayınları; 1987. s.151.
Ahuja LR, Nachabe MH, Rockiki R. Soils: Field capacity, in Encyclopedia of Water Science, 2nd edition, ED: by Trimble SW, Stewart BA, Howell TA). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. 2000. pp. 1128–1131 (Available at http://www.informaworld.com/10.1081/E-EWS2- 120010264).
Nachabe MH. Refining the interpretation of field capacity in the literature. ASCE J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 1998;124 (4), 230–232.
O'Geen A.T. Soil Water Dynamics. Nature Education Knowledge, 2012. 3(6):12.).
Cassel DK and Nielsen DR (1986). Field capacity and available water capacity. In „Methods of soil analysis. Part 1, Physical and mineralogical methods‟. (Ed. A Klute) (American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WI ). pp. 901-926.
Lal R, Shukla MK. Principles of Soil Physics. CRC Press. 2004.
Kramer PJ, Boyer JS. Water Relations of Plants and Soils. 1995. Academic Press.
Referanslar
Kırda C, Sariyev A. Toprak Fiziği. Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Genel Yayın. No. 245; 2002.
Erşahin S. Toprak Amenajmanı. GOÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Notları Serisi Tokat; 2001. 21:44-57.
Brady N, Weil RR. The nature and properties of soils. 13 Edic. Prentince Hall. 2002; New Jersey, USA. 598p.
Hillel, D. Fundamentals of soil physics. Academic press.2013
Gardner WH. Water content. Methods of soil analysis: Part 1 Physical and mineralogical properties, including statistics of measurement and sampling. 1965;9, 82-127.
USDA. United States Department of Agriculture. Soil Classification, Tools and Data. 2015; https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/survey/tools/ (ErişimTarihi 20.11.2024).
Gardner WH. Water Content. Chapter 21 in Methods of Soil Analysis, Part I, Physical and Mineralogical Methods. American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America. 1986; Madison, WI, USA.
Yetik AK, Aşık M. Toprak Nem İçeriğinin İzlenmesi ve Tayininde Kullanılan Yöntemler. Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2021; 8(1), 484-496.
Al-Kaisi M. How to evaluate soil moisture in the field. Iowa State University. 2000; https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/how-evaluate-soil-moisture-field.
Fiscbach P. EC71-752 Scheduling irrigation by electrical resistance blocks. Historical Materialsfrom University of Nebraska- Lincoln Extension.1971.
Martin E. Methods of Measuring for Irrigation Scheduling--WHEN. Arizona Cooperative extension. the university of arizona, tucson, arizona water series. 2009; no. 30.
Şener S. Menemen Koşullarında Tansiyometrelerin ve Alçı Bloklarının Pamuk ve Bağın Sulama Zamanlarının Saptanmasında Kullanılması. Menemen Bölge TOPRAKSU 88 Araştırma Enst. Yayınları, Gen. Yayın. 1985; No: 114, Rapor Serisi NO: 77, Menemen, izmir, 37 Syf.
Allen RG. Irrigation Engineering Principles. Course Lecture Notes. Department of Biological and Irrigation Engineering, Utah State University, Logan.1998; Utah, USA. p. 298
Werner H. Measuring soil moisture for irrigation water management. Cooperative Extension Service, South Dakota State University. 1992; US Department of Agriculture.
Van Bavel CH, Nixon PR, Nixon PR, Hauser VL, Hauser VL. Soil moisture measurement with the neutron method (Vol. 70). Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture.1963
Evett SR, Steıner JL. Precision of neutron scattering and capacitance type soil water content gauges from field calibration. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1995; 59/4, July-August, 1995, pp. 961-968.
Jayawardane NS, Meyer WS, Barrs HD. Moisture measurement in a swelling clay soil using neutron moisture meters. Soil research. 1984;22(2), 109-117.
Li J, Smith DW, Fityus SG. The effect of a gap between the access tube and the soil during neutron probe measurements. Soil Research. 2003;41(1), 151-164.
Su SL, Singh DN, Baghini MS. A critical review of soil moisture measurement. Measurement. 2014;54, 92-105.
Fityus S, Wells T, Huang W. Water content measurement in expansive soils using the neutron probe. Geotechnical Testing Journal. 2011;34(3), 255-264.
Grossman RB, Reinsch TG. Bulk density and linear extensibility. Section 2.1 in Methods of Soil Analysis J. H. Dane, and G. C. Topp, eds. Madison, Wis.: Soil Sci. Soc. America. 2002; Part 4: Physical Methods, 201-228.
Muñoz-Carpena R, Field devices for monitoring soil water content. EDIS. 2004; 8.
Smith RE, Warrick AW. Soil water relationships. In Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems, 2nd Edition. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers; 2007. pp. 120-159.
Aydın M, Aydın G, Erşahin S, Karahan G. Toprak Amenajmanı içinde. Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi; 2015. p. 227-276.
Evett, S. Some keys to excellence in neutron probe calibration. USDA, Bushland, TX, USA. 1998; p.4.
Hanson BR, Peters D. Measuring soil moisture. Irrigation Association Technical Conference Proceedings. November 1-3, 1998, San Diego, California, USA, pp. 103-110.
Topp GC, Davıs JL, Annan AP. Elektromagnetic determination of soil water content: Measurement in coaxial transmission lines. Water Resour. Res. 1980; 16: 574-582
Or D, Wraith JM. Soil physics. Agricultural and Environmental Department of Plants, Soils and Biometerology. 1998; Utah State University, Logan, USA, p. 243.
Hoekstra P, Delaney A. Dielectric properties of soils at UHF and microwave frequencies. J. Geophys. Res. 1974;79, 1699-1708.
Zegelin SJ, White I, Russell GF. A critique of the time domain reflectometry technique for determining field soil‐water content. Advances in measurement of soil physical properties: bringing theory into practice. 1992;30, 187-208.
Mead, R. Soil moisture instrumentation: Irrigation Journal Sensors and Strategies for The 21st Century. Sep./Oct.1998.
Hanson BR, Peters D. Measuring soil moisture. Irrigation Association Technical Conference Proceedings. November 1-3, 1998; San Diego, California, USA, pp. 103-110.
Hillel D. Introduction to environmental soil physics. Elsevier. 2003
Telford WM, Geldart LP, Sheriff RE. Applied geophysics. Cambridge university press. 1990
Sposito G. The chemistry of soils. Oxford university press.2008
Mualem Y. The use of tensiometer readout for irrigation- Success and Failure. 5th International Conference on Irrigation Proceedings, 26-27 March 1990, Tel-Aviv, Israel. 118-130.
Richards LA, Gardner W. Tensiometers for Measuring the Capillary Tension of Soil Water 1. Agronomy Journal. 1936;28(5), 352-358.
Kirkham MB. Principles of soil and plant water relations. Academic Press. 2014
Nope, 16. (fotoğrafçı), 2014, Ağustos 26. Soil Water Tension (Tensiometers) in vegetable garden. (Dijital görsel). 213067534. Shuttterstock. 27.11.2024
Cassell DK, Klute A. Water potential: tensiometry. methods of soil analysis, Part I. Physical and Mineralogical Methods. Agronomy Monograph No. 9. 2nd Edition. American Society of Agronomy -Soil Science Society of America. Madison Wisconsin USA, 1986. Section 23: pp. 563-588
Richards SJ. Soil suction measurements with tensiometers. In Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Properties, Including Statistics of Measurement and Sampling American Society of Agronomy. 1965; (Black CA, Evans DD, Ensminger LE, White JL, and Clark FE, Eds.), 153–163.Madison, Wisconsin.
Koorevaar P, Menelik G, Dirksen C. Elements of soil physics. Elsevier.1983
McBratney, A. B., Minasny, B., Cattle, S. R., Vervoort, R. W. From pedotransfer functions to soil inference systems. Geoderma. 2002; 109(1-2), 41-73.
Munsuz, N. Toprak mekaniği ve teknolojisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları. 1985
Öztekin T, Cemek B, Brown L. Pedotransfer functions for the hydraulic properties of layered soils. GOÜ. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 2007;24(2), 77-86.
Helling CS, Gish TJ. Physical and chemical processes affecting preferential flow.
Sidle RC, Noguchi S, Tsuboyama Y, Laursen K. A conceptual model of preferential flow systems in forested hillslopes: Evidence of self‐organization. Hydrological Processes. 2001;15(10), 1675-1692.
Beven K, Germann P. Macropores and water flow in soils. Water resources research. 1982; 18(5), 1311-1325.
Dunne T, Zhang W, Aubry BF. Effects of rainfall, vegetation, and microtopography on infiltration and runoff. Water Resources Research. 1991; 27(9), 2271-2285.
Mao LL, Lei TW, Bralts VF. An analytical approximation method for the linear source soil infiltrability measurement and its application. Journal of Hydrology. 2011; 411(3-4), 169-177.
Williams JR, Kannan N, Wang X, Santhi C, Arnold JG. Evolution of the SCS runoff curve number method and its application to continuous runoff simulation. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering. 2012;17(11), 1221-1229.
Aydin M. Hydraulic properties and water balance of a clay soil cropped with cotton. Irrigation Science. 1994;15, 17-23.
Karaman MR, Brohi AR, Müftüoğlu NM, Öztaş T, Zengin M. Sürdürülebilir toprak verimliliği kitabı. Koyulhisar Ziraat Odası Kültür Yayınları No:1 Güncellenmiş, 3. Baskı. 2012; 42-43.
Lowery B, Hickey WJ, Arshad MA. Lal R. Soil water parameters and soil quality. Methods for assessing soil quality. 1997;49, 143-155.
Bengough AG, McKenzie BM, Hallett PD, Valentine TA. Root elongation, water stress, and mechanical impedance: a review of limiting stresses and beneficial root tip traits. Journal of experimental botany. 2011; 62(1), 59-68.
Mengel K, Kirkby EA, Kosegarten H, Appel T. Plant nutrients. Principles of plant nutrition. 2001; 1-13.
Marschner H. (Ed.). Marschner's mineral nutrition of higher plants. 3rd Edition Academic press. 2011.
Kantarcı MD. Toprak ilmi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Yayınları; 1987. s.151.
Ahuja LR, Nachabe MH, Rockiki R. Soils: Field capacity, in Encyclopedia of Water Science, 2nd edition, ED: by Trimble SW, Stewart BA, Howell TA). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. 2000. pp. 1128–1131 (Available at http://www.informaworld.com/10.1081/E-EWS2- 120010264).
Nachabe MH. Refining the interpretation of field capacity in the literature. ASCE J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 1998;124 (4), 230–232.
O'Geen A.T. Soil Water Dynamics. Nature Education Knowledge, 2012. 3(6):12.).
Cassel DK and Nielsen DR (1986). Field capacity and available water capacity. In „Methods of soil analysis. Part 1, Physical and mineralogical methods‟. (Ed. A Klute) (American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WI ). pp. 901-926.
Lal R, Shukla MK. Principles of Soil Physics. CRC Press. 2004.
Kramer PJ, Boyer JS. Water Relations of Plants and Soils. 1995. Academic Press.
