Toprak Havası
Özet
Toprak havası, toprak gözeneklerinin su ile dolmayan kısmında bulunan gaz fazı olup, bitki kökleri ve toprak organizmalarının yaşamını sürdürebilmesi için kritik öneme sahiptir. Atmosfer havasına benzese de bileşimi, biyolojik aktivite, toprak nemi, sıkışma durumu, difüzyon ve drenaj koşulları gibi faktörlere bağlı olarak önemli farklılıklar gösterir. Toprak havasının temel bileşenleri azot (N₂), oksijen (O₂) ve karbondioksit (CO₂) olup, daha düşük oranlarda metan (CH₄), hidrojen sülfür (H₂S) ve su buharı da bulunabilir. Bitki kökleri ve mikroorganizmaların aerobik solunumu sonucu oksijen tüketilirken karbondioksit açığa çıkar; bu nedenle toprak havasında O₂ oranı genellikle atmosferdekinden düşük, CO₂ oranı ise daha yüksektir. Toprak havasının miktarı ve bileşimi; toprağın nem içeriği, organik madde düzeyi, bünye ve strüktürel özellikleri, mikroorganizma faaliyeti ve drenaj koşulları tarafından belirlenir. Aşırı suyla doygun veya sıkışmış topraklarda gaz değişimi kısıtlanır, oksijen difüzyonu yavaşlar ve anaerobik koşullar oluşur. Bu durum bitki köklerinde asfiksiye yol açarak enerji üretimini sınırlar, su ve besin elementlerinin (özellikle K, N ve P) alımını engeller, hormonal dengeleri bozar ve büyümede ciddi gerilemelere neden olur. Uzun süreli oksijen yetersizliği, bitkilerde fizyolojik stres, toksik metabolit birikimi ve verim kayıpları ile sonuçlanır. Toprak havası yalnızca kök solunumu ve mikrobiyal süreçler için değil, aynı zamanda toprak verimliliğini belirleyen fiziksel, kimyasal ve biyolojik etkileşimlerin devamlılığı açısından temel bir faktördür. İyi havalanmış toprak, sağlıklı bitki gelişimi, sürdürülebilir üretim ve ekosistem işleyişi için vazgeçilmezdir.
Referanslar
Weil R, Brady N. The nature and properties of soils, 15th edn., edited by: Fox, D. Pearson, Columbus; 2016.
Hillel D. Introduction to environmental soil physics: Elsevier; 2003.
Lal R, Shukla MK. Principles of soil physics: CRC Press; 2004.
Gliński J, Stępniewski W. Soil aeration and its role for plants: CRC press; 2018.
Smith KA, Mullins CE. Soil and environmental analysis: Marcel Dekker Incorporated; 2000.
Russell E. Russell’s soil conditions and plant growth . A. Wild. Longmans Scien‐tific and Technical. Essex, England; 1988.
Coyne MS. Soil microbiology: an exploratory approach. (No Title). 1999.
Singer M, Munns D. Soils: An Introduction, Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ. 2006.
Karaman M, Brohi A, Müftüoğlu N, Öztaş T, Zengin M. Sürdürülebilir toprak verimliliği. Koyulhisar ziraat odası kültür yayınları. 2007;3:291-4.
Shaheb MR, Venkatesh R, Shearer SA. A review on the effect of soil compaction and its management for sustainable crop production. Journal of Biosystems Engineering. 2021:1-23.
Jimenez KJ, Rolim MM, de Lima RP, Cavalcanti RQ, Silva ÊF, Pedrosa EM. Soil physical indicators of a sugarcane field subjected to successive mechanised harvests. Sugar Tech. 2021;23:811-8.
Ohu J, Arku A, Mamman E. Modeling the effect of organic materials incorporated into soils before load applications from tractor traffic. Ife J Technol. 2001;10(1):9-18.
Arvidsson J. Influence of soil texture and organic matter content on bulk density, air content, compression index and crop yield in field and laboratory compression experiments. Soil and Tillage Research. 1998;49(1-2):159-70.
Stepniewski W, Gliński J, Ball B. Effects of compaction on soil aeration properties. Developments in agricultural engineering. 11: Elsevier; 1994. p. 167-89.
Tang AM, Cui Y-J, Richard G, Défossez P. A study on the air permeability as affected by compression of three French soils. Geoderma. 2011;162(1-2):171-81.
Scott H, Renaud F. Aeration and drainage. Irrigation of agricultural crops. 2007;30:195-235.
Bradford KJ, Hsiao TC. Stomatal behavior and water relations of waterlogged tomato plants. Plant Physiology. 1982;70(5):1508-13.
Morard P, Silvestre J. Plant injury due to oxygen deficiency in the root environment of soilless culture: a review. Plant and soil. 1996;184(2):243-54.
Saglio PH, Pradet A. Soluble sugars, respiration, and energy charge during aging of excised maize root tips. Plant physiology. 1980;66(3):516-9.
Morard P, Maertens C, Bertoni G, Boisseau Y. Influence de la respiration des racines sur l'absorption du potassium et des nitrates chez le blé. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences Série 3, Sciences de la vie. 1990;311(2):103-8.
Trought M, Drew M. The development of waterlogging damage in wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum L.) II. Accumulation and redistribution of nutrients by the shoot. Plant and Soil. 1980;56(2):187-99.
Lesaint C, Grandjean M, Gambier J. Influence de l'aeration du milieu nutritif sur l'absorption de l'eau et des ions, la nuit et le jour. Comparaison du mais et de la tomate [culture hydroponique]. Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Academie d'Agriculture de France. 1983;69.
Letey J, Lunt O, Stolzy L, Szuszkiewicz T. Plant growth, water use and nutritional response to rhizosphere differentials of oxygen concentration. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1961;25(3):183-6.
Bradford KJ. Effects of soil flooding on leaf gas exchange of tomato plants. Plant Physiology. 1983;73(2):475-9.
Schapira A. Relations entre la respiration racinaire, l'absorption et l'alimentation minérale chez le concombre et la tomate 1983.
Hopkins H. Absorption of ionic species of orthophosphate by barley roots: effects of 2, 4-dinitrophenol and oxygen tension. Plant Physiology. 1956;31(2):155.
Rao KP, Rains DW. Nitrate absorption by barley: I. Kinetics and energetics. Plant physiology. 1976;57(1):55-8.
Hiatt A, Lowe RH. Loss of organic acids, amino acids, K, and Cl from barley roots treated anaerobically and with metabolic inhibitors. Plant Physiology. 1967;42(12):1731-6.
Harris D, Van Bavel C. Growth, Yield, and Water Absorption of Tobacco Plants as Affected by the Composition of the Root Atmosphere 1. Agronomy Journal. 1957;49(1):11-4.
Chang LA, Hammett LK, Pharr DM. Ethanol, Alcohol Dehydrogenase, and Pyruvate Decarboxylase in Storage Roots of Four Sweet Potato Cultivars during Simulated Flood-damage and Storage1. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 1982;107(4):674-7.
Davies WJ, Zhang J. Root signals and the regulation of growth and development of plants in drying soil. Annual review of plant biology. 1991;42(1):55-76.
Bradford KJ. Involvement of plant growth substances in the alteration of leaf gas exchange of flooded tomato plants. Plant Physiology. 1983;73(2):480-3.
Duthion C. VARIATION DES TENEURS EN ACIDES ORGANIQUES DE RACINES DE PLANTES SOUMISES A UN EXCES D'EAU. 1976.
Buwalda F, Thomson C, Steigner W, Barrett-Lennard E, Gibbs J, Greenway H. Hypoxia induces membrane depolarization and potassium loss from wheat roots but does not increase their permeability to sorbitol. Journal of Experimental Botany. 1988:1169-83.
Cheeseman JM, Hanson JB. Energy-linked potassium influx as related to cell potential in corn roots. Plant Physiology. 1979;64(5):842-5.
Zhang Q, Lauchli A, Greenway H. Effects of anoxia on solute loss from beetroot storage tissue. Journal of Experimental Botany. 1992;43(7):897-905.
Černohorská J, Dvořák M, Wiedenroth EM, editors. Electrical conductivity and capacitance of root tissues in different conditions of energetic metabolism. Structural and Functional Aspects of Transport in Roots: Third International Symposium on ‘Structure and Function of Roots’ Nitra, Czechoslovakia, 3–7 August 1987; 1989: Springer.
Bertoni G, Silvestre J, Llorens J, Morard P, Maertens C, editors. Effect of a transient anoxia on potassium uptake in cucumber. Optimization of Plant Nutrition: Refereed papers from the Eighth International Colloquium for the Optimization of Plant Nutrition, 31 August–8 September 1992, Lisbon, Portugal; 1993: Springer.
Referanslar
Weil R, Brady N. The nature and properties of soils, 15th edn., edited by: Fox, D. Pearson, Columbus; 2016.
Hillel D. Introduction to environmental soil physics: Elsevier; 2003.
Lal R, Shukla MK. Principles of soil physics: CRC Press; 2004.
Gliński J, Stępniewski W. Soil aeration and its role for plants: CRC press; 2018.
Smith KA, Mullins CE. Soil and environmental analysis: Marcel Dekker Incorporated; 2000.
Russell E. Russell’s soil conditions and plant growth . A. Wild. Longmans Scien‐tific and Technical. Essex, England; 1988.
Coyne MS. Soil microbiology: an exploratory approach. (No Title). 1999.
Singer M, Munns D. Soils: An Introduction, Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ. 2006.
Karaman M, Brohi A, Müftüoğlu N, Öztaş T, Zengin M. Sürdürülebilir toprak verimliliği. Koyulhisar ziraat odası kültür yayınları. 2007;3:291-4.
Shaheb MR, Venkatesh R, Shearer SA. A review on the effect of soil compaction and its management for sustainable crop production. Journal of Biosystems Engineering. 2021:1-23.
Jimenez KJ, Rolim MM, de Lima RP, Cavalcanti RQ, Silva ÊF, Pedrosa EM. Soil physical indicators of a sugarcane field subjected to successive mechanised harvests. Sugar Tech. 2021;23:811-8.
Ohu J, Arku A, Mamman E. Modeling the effect of organic materials incorporated into soils before load applications from tractor traffic. Ife J Technol. 2001;10(1):9-18.
Arvidsson J. Influence of soil texture and organic matter content on bulk density, air content, compression index and crop yield in field and laboratory compression experiments. Soil and Tillage Research. 1998;49(1-2):159-70.
Stepniewski W, Gliński J, Ball B. Effects of compaction on soil aeration properties. Developments in agricultural engineering. 11: Elsevier; 1994. p. 167-89.
Tang AM, Cui Y-J, Richard G, Défossez P. A study on the air permeability as affected by compression of three French soils. Geoderma. 2011;162(1-2):171-81.
Scott H, Renaud F. Aeration and drainage. Irrigation of agricultural crops. 2007;30:195-235.
Bradford KJ, Hsiao TC. Stomatal behavior and water relations of waterlogged tomato plants. Plant Physiology. 1982;70(5):1508-13.
Morard P, Silvestre J. Plant injury due to oxygen deficiency in the root environment of soilless culture: a review. Plant and soil. 1996;184(2):243-54.
Saglio PH, Pradet A. Soluble sugars, respiration, and energy charge during aging of excised maize root tips. Plant physiology. 1980;66(3):516-9.
Morard P, Maertens C, Bertoni G, Boisseau Y. Influence de la respiration des racines sur l'absorption du potassium et des nitrates chez le blé. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences Série 3, Sciences de la vie. 1990;311(2):103-8.
Trought M, Drew M. The development of waterlogging damage in wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum L.) II. Accumulation and redistribution of nutrients by the shoot. Plant and Soil. 1980;56(2):187-99.
Lesaint C, Grandjean M, Gambier J. Influence de l'aeration du milieu nutritif sur l'absorption de l'eau et des ions, la nuit et le jour. Comparaison du mais et de la tomate [culture hydroponique]. Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Academie d'Agriculture de France. 1983;69.
Letey J, Lunt O, Stolzy L, Szuszkiewicz T. Plant growth, water use and nutritional response to rhizosphere differentials of oxygen concentration. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1961;25(3):183-6.
Bradford KJ. Effects of soil flooding on leaf gas exchange of tomato plants. Plant Physiology. 1983;73(2):475-9.
Schapira A. Relations entre la respiration racinaire, l'absorption et l'alimentation minérale chez le concombre et la tomate 1983.
Hopkins H. Absorption of ionic species of orthophosphate by barley roots: effects of 2, 4-dinitrophenol and oxygen tension. Plant Physiology. 1956;31(2):155.
Rao KP, Rains DW. Nitrate absorption by barley: I. Kinetics and energetics. Plant physiology. 1976;57(1):55-8.
Hiatt A, Lowe RH. Loss of organic acids, amino acids, K, and Cl from barley roots treated anaerobically and with metabolic inhibitors. Plant Physiology. 1967;42(12):1731-6.
Harris D, Van Bavel C. Growth, Yield, and Water Absorption of Tobacco Plants as Affected by the Composition of the Root Atmosphere 1. Agronomy Journal. 1957;49(1):11-4.
Chang LA, Hammett LK, Pharr DM. Ethanol, Alcohol Dehydrogenase, and Pyruvate Decarboxylase in Storage Roots of Four Sweet Potato Cultivars during Simulated Flood-damage and Storage1. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 1982;107(4):674-7.
Davies WJ, Zhang J. Root signals and the regulation of growth and development of plants in drying soil. Annual review of plant biology. 1991;42(1):55-76.
Bradford KJ. Involvement of plant growth substances in the alteration of leaf gas exchange of flooded tomato plants. Plant Physiology. 1983;73(2):480-3.
Duthion C. VARIATION DES TENEURS EN ACIDES ORGANIQUES DE RACINES DE PLANTES SOUMISES A UN EXCES D'EAU. 1976.
Buwalda F, Thomson C, Steigner W, Barrett-Lennard E, Gibbs J, Greenway H. Hypoxia induces membrane depolarization and potassium loss from wheat roots but does not increase their permeability to sorbitol. Journal of Experimental Botany. 1988:1169-83.
Cheeseman JM, Hanson JB. Energy-linked potassium influx as related to cell potential in corn roots. Plant Physiology. 1979;64(5):842-5.
Zhang Q, Lauchli A, Greenway H. Effects of anoxia on solute loss from beetroot storage tissue. Journal of Experimental Botany. 1992;43(7):897-905.
Černohorská J, Dvořák M, Wiedenroth EM, editors. Electrical conductivity and capacitance of root tissues in different conditions of energetic metabolism. Structural and Functional Aspects of Transport in Roots: Third International Symposium on ‘Structure and Function of Roots’ Nitra, Czechoslovakia, 3–7 August 1987; 1989: Springer.
Bertoni G, Silvestre J, Llorens J, Morard P, Maertens C, editors. Effect of a transient anoxia on potassium uptake in cucumber. Optimization of Plant Nutrition: Refereed papers from the Eighth International Colloquium for the Optimization of Plant Nutrition, 31 August–8 September 1992, Lisbon, Portugal; 1993: Springer.
