Düşünme Becerileri ve Öğretimi
Özet
“Düşünmeyi öğrenebilmiş hiç kimse, bir şeye körü körüne inanmaz” sözü Tolstoy’a atfedilmektedir ancak bu sözün kime ait olduğu yapay zekaya sorulduğunda ilk yanıtı Platon olmuştur. Yapay zekaya “bu söz Tolstoy’a ait olabilir mi?” diye ikinci bir soru sorulduğunda yanıtı “evet” şeklinde güncellenmiştir çünkü internet üzerinde yaptığı aramada bu ifadeyi doğrulayabilecek kanıtlara ve bilgilere ulaşmıştır. Belki de Tolstoy’un böyle bir sözü yok ve bu söz herhangi bir kişi tarafından Tolstoy’a atfedilerek bir sosyal medya iletisi olarak paylaşıldı. Bu paylaşım farklı binlerce hesap tarafından yeninde paylaşılarak yeni bir gerçeklik oluşturuldu. Sahte gerçekliklerin kolayca üretilebildiği 21. Yüzyılda insanlar neye, nasıl inanacak? Artık gözle görülenin bile inanılamayacağı ya da inanılmaması gerektiği bir dünyada sorgulama, kanıt arama, bulunan kanıtın doğruluğunu yeniden sorgulama, farklı kaynaklarla teyit etme ve gerçek olan gerçeğe ulaşmada tek yol gösterici düşünme becerileri olacaktır. Eğitim sistemlerinin tüm bireylerde geliştirmek istediği başta problem çözme, karar verme, eleştirel düşünme ve yaratıcı düşünme olmak üzere insanın var olduğu ilk andan 21. Yüzyıla kadar yaşamda kalmasını sağlayan en önemli özelliği düşünme becerileri olmuştur. Düşünme becerileri insanın doğuştan sahip olduğu ve eğitim ile geliştirilebilir bir kapasitesidir. Bu kapasite başta teknoloji olmak üzere her alandaki değişimlere paralel olarak dönüşmekte ve gelişmeye devam etmektedir. Bu kapasitenin doğru kullanımı belki de insanlığın kendi kendini kandırmasının önüne geçebilir.
Referanslar
Adair, J. (2017). Decision making and problem solving. London: Kogan.
Akkuş Çakır, N., & Senemoğlu, N. (2016). Yükseköğretimde analitik düşünme becerileri. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 24(3), 1487-1502.
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context: Update to the social psychology of creativity. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Amerikan Öğretmen Eğitimi Kolejleri Birliği ve 21. Yüzyıl Becerileri Ortaklığı (2010). 21st Century knowledge and skills in educator preparation. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED519336.pdf
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives: complete edition. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc..
Arnold, R. D., & Wade, J. P. (2015). A definition of systems thinking: A systems approach. Procedia computer science, 44, 669-678.
Beyea, R.,2017. J. B. Cummings & M. L. Blatherwick (Eds.), Creative Dimensions of Teaching and Learning in the 21st Century, 295–299..
Brandt, W. C. (2024). Measuring student success skills: a review of the literature on student agency. competencies of the future. National Center for the Improvement of Educational Assessment.
Brookfield, S. D. (2012). Teaching for Critical thinking: tools and techniques to heplp students question their assumptions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Crawford, A., Saul, E., W., Mathews, S., & Makinster, J. (2005). Teaching and learning strategies for the thinking classroom. The International Debate Education Association.
Daud, N. M., & Husin, Z. (2004). Developing critical thinking skills in computer-aided extended reading classes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(4), 477-487.
De Bono, E. (1973). Lateral thinking: Creativity, step-by-step. New York: Perennial.
Doğanay, A. (2009). Üst düzey düşünme becerilerinin öğretimi, A. Doğanay (Ed). Öğretim İlke ve Yöntemleri (ss.304-352). Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation and co-regulation. European Psychologist 13 (4): 277–287. doi: https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.13.4.277.
Facione, P. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (The Delphi Report).
Feriver Gezer, Ş. (2018). Türkiye'deki ve Almanya'daki erken çocukluk eğitsel bağlamlarındaki okul öncesi çocuklarının sistemsel düşünme becerileri [Doktora tezi, Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi].
Fisher, R. (1998). Thinking about thinking: developing metacognition in children. Early Child Development and Care, 141(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443981410101.
Fischer, S. C., & Spiker, V. A. (2000). A framework for critical thinking research and training. (Report Prepared for the U. S. Army Research Institute).
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry.” American Psychologist 34 (10): 906–911. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
Florida, R. (2002). The flight of the creative class: the new global competition for talent. Collins.
Glaser, R. (1992). Expert knowledge and processes of thinking. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.), Enhancing thinking skills in the sciences and mathematics (pp. 63-75, ix, 155). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Glevey, K. E. (2006). Promoting thinking skills in education. London Review of Education, 4(3).
Gourlay, C., Mushin, I., & Gardner, R. (2020). Young children’s responses to teachers’ metacognitive questions. International Journal of Early Years Education, 29(4), 371–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2020.1742671.
Guilford, J. P. (1977). Way beyond the IQ. Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation.
Gutierez, S. B. (2015). Integrating Socio-Scientific Issues to Enhance the Bioethical Decision-Making Skills of High School Students. International Education Studies, 8(1), 142-151. doi:10.5539/ies.v8n1p142
Halonen, J. S. (1995). Demystifying critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 75–81.
Halonen, J., & Gray, C. (2000). The critical thinking companion for introductory psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Worth.
Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains: Disposition, skills, structure training, and metacognitive monitoring. American Psychologist, 53(4), 449.
Halpern, D. F. (2002). Teaching for critical thinking: A four-part model to enhance thinking skills. In S. F. Davis & W. Buskist (Eds.), The teaching of psychology: Essays in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie and Charles L. Brewer (pp. 91–105). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Halpern, D. F. (2003). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (4th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Halpern, D. F. (2014). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (5th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hwang, G.-J., Lai, C.-L., Liang, J.-C., Chu, H.-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2018). A long-term experiment to investigate the relationships between high school students’ perceptions of mobile learning and peer interaction and higher-order thinking tendencies. Educational Technology Research & Development, 66(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-017-9540-3.
Jackson, D. & Newberry, P. (2012). Critical thinking: a user’s manual. Cengage Learning.
Keleşoğlu, S. (2022). Yaratıcı ve inovatif geleceğin peşinde. Siyasal.
Koutsouris, G., Mountford-Zimdars, A., & Dingwall, K. (2021). The ‘ideal’higher education student: Understanding the hidden curriculum to enable institutional change. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 26(2), 131-147.
Kristensen, T. (2004). The physical context of creativity. Creativity And Innovation Management,13(2), 89-96.
Lizárraga, M. L., Acedo, S. D., Baquedano, M. T., & Cardelle-Elawar, M. (2007). Factors that affect decision making, gender, and age differences. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 7(3), 381-391.
Lewis, A., & Smith, D. (1993) Defining higher order thinking. Theory Into Practice 32: 131–137.
Levy Nahum, T., Ben‐Chaim, D., Azaiza, I., Herskovitz, O., & Zoller, U. (2009). Does stes‐oriented science education promote 10th‐grade students’ decision‐making capability? International Journal of Science Education, 32(10), 1315–1336. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690903042533.
MEB. (2025). Türkiye Yüzyılı Maarif Modeli Ortak Metin. https://tymm.meb.gov.tr/upload/brosur/ortak_metin.pdf#page=37.99.
Mishra, P., & Mehta, R. (2017). What we educators get wrong about 21st-century learning: Results of a survey. Journal of Digital learning in Teacher education, 33(1), 6-19.
Noddings, N. (2008). All our students thinking. Educational Leadership 65(5): 8–13.
NSW. (2025). Thinking skills. https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/education-for-a-changing-world/thinking-skills
OECD. (2022a). PISA 2022 creative thinking. https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/creative-thinking/pisa-2022-creative-thinking.html
OECD (2002b). Thinking outside of the box. https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/creative-thinking/pisa-2022-creative-thinking.html
Orlich, C., D., Harder, J., R., Callahan, C., R., Trevisan, S., M., & Brown, H., A. (2009). Teaching strategies A guide to effective instruction. Wadsworth.
Özden, Y. (2011). Öğrenme ve öğretme. Pegem.
Paul, R. (1982). Teaching critical thinking in the strong sense: a focus on self-decepiton, world views and a dialecticalmode of analysis, Informal Logic Newsletter, 4:2.
Petrovska, S., & Veselinovska, S. S. (2013). Contemporary pedagogical approaches for developing higher level thinking on science classes. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 92, 702-710.
Renaud, R. D. & Murray, H. G. (2008). A comparison of a subject-specific and a general measure of critical thinking. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 3(2), 85-93.
Runco, M. A., & Acar, S. (2012). Divergent thinking as an indicator of creative potential. Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2012.652929.
Savage ve Armstrong, 2000). Effective teaching in primary school social studies education, Pearson.
Sawyer, K. (2012). Explaining creativity: the science of human innovation. Oxford University Press.
Sardar, Z. (2010). The Namesake: futures; futures studies; futurology; futuristic; foresight – what’s in a name? Futures 42 (3), 177–184.
Schraw, G. 2001. Promoting General Metacognitive Awareness. In Metacognition in Learning and Instruction: Theory, Research and Practice, edited by H. J. Hartman, 3–16, Boston: Kluwer.
Sternberg, R.J. (.1986). Critical thinking: Its nature, measurement, and improvement. National Institute of Education. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED272882.pdf.
Sternberg RJ, & Lubart T. (1996) Investing in creativity. American Psychologist 51: 677–688.
Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2002). Invitation to psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
World Economic Forum. (2023). https://www.weforum.org/stories/2023/05/future-of-jobs-2023-skills/
World Economic Forum. (2025). Future of jobs report https://reports.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_Report_2025.pdf.
Weisberg, R. W. (2014). Toward an integrated theory of insight in problem solving. Thinking & Reasoning, 21(1), 5–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2014.886625.
Whitebread, D., & P. Coltman. 2010. “Aspects of Pedagogy Supporting Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Mathematical Learning of Young Children: Evidence from an Observational Study.” ZDM Mathematics Education 42 (2), 163–178. doi:10.1007/s11858009-0233-1.
Tapper, J. (2004). Student perceptions of how critical thinking is embedded in a degree program. Higher education research & Development, 23(2), 199-222.
Torrance, E. P. (1967). The Minnesota studies of creative behavior: National and international extensions. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 1(2), 137-154.
Türk Dil Kurumu. (2025). Türkçe Sözlük https://sozluk.gov.tr/
Tsui, L. (2002). Fostering critical thinking through effective pedagogy: Evidence from four institutional case studies. Journal of Higher Education, 73(6), 740-763.
Volante, L. (2005). Accountability, student assessment, and the need for a comprehensive approach. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 9(6).
