Çayır Yönetimi: Kuru Ot, Silaj Yapımı ve Depolama
Özet
Bu bölüm, çayır yönetiminin temel unsurlarından olan kuru ot üretimi, silaj yapımı ve depolama tekniklerini bilimsel ve uygulamalı yönleriyle ele almaktadır. Öncelikle, yüksek kaliteli kaba yem üretimi için otların hasat zamanı, biçim teknikleri ve bitki fizyolojisine dayalı verim-kalite ilişkisi ayrıntılı olarak incelenmektedir. Ardından, silaj yapımında kullanılan yöntemler; uygun bitki tür ve çeşit seçimi, doğru kuru madde oranı, katkı maddeleri kullanımı ve fermantasyon süreci gibi kritik faktörler çerçevesinde açıklanmaktadır. Depolama aşamasında ise kuru ot ve silajın besin değerini korumak, küf ve bozulmayı önlemek için uygulanması gereken modern yöntemlere yer verilmektedir. Bölüm, sürdürülebilir hayvancılık açısından yem kayıplarını azaltan, ekonomik verimliliği artıran ve hayvan besleme performansını iyileştiren stratejilere odaklanmaktadır. Teorik bilgilerin yanı sıra saha deneyimleri ve güncel literatür verileriyle desteklenen bu çalışma hem akademik hem de pratik kullanım için kapsamlı bir kaynak niteliği taşımaktadır.
This section explores hay production, silage making, and storage techniques as essential components of pasture management, combining both scientific principles and practical applications. It begins by examining the optimal harvest timing, cutting techniques, and the yield–quality relationship based on plant physiology, which are crucial for producing high-quality forage. The discussion then focuses on silage production methods, including proper crop selection, ideal dry matter content, the use of additives, and key factors influencing the fermentation process. In the storage phase, modern techniques for preserving the nutritional value of hay and silage, while preventing mold growth and spoilage, are addressed in detail. The section emphasizes strategies that reduce feed losses, improve economic efficiency, and enhance animal feeding performance, contributing to sustainable livestock production. Supported by both theoretical insights and field-based experiences, as well as recent literature findings, this work serves as a comprehensive resource for academics, agricultural practitioners, and livestock producers seeking to optimize pasture-based forage production systems.
Referanslar
Johnson, K. A., Johnson, D. E., Young, A. J. The role of dietary fiber in rumen pH and animal health. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2019. 255, 114190.
Thomas, D. L., Miller, T., Clark, B. Effective fiber and rumen health in dairy cows: Mechanisms and applications. 2022. J. of Dai. Res., 89(1).
Martinez, T., Johnson, M., Smith, D. Prevention of subacute ruminal acidosis through dietary management in dairy cows. J. of D. Science, 2021. 104(6), 6585-6595.
Anonim. (2023). Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle (8th ed.). The National Academies Press.
Lopez, S., Hervás, G., Frutos, P. Influence of pasture-based diets on fatty acid composition of milk. Animal, 2020. 14(3), 615-625.
Anderson, P., Smith, J., Clark, R. Effects of harvest timing on forage digestibility and animal performance. Journal of Animal Science, 2018. 96(4), 1456-1465.
Kirilov, A. The effect of wilting and drying methods on the nutritional quality of forage. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 2001. 7(2), 117–121.
Rotz, C. A., Buckmaster, D. R., Muck, R. E., Pitt, R. E.. Process and Environmental Engineering for Forage Harvesting and Preservation. 2003,ASAE Monograph.
Collins, M., Owens, V. Preservation of forage as hay and silage. In: Forages: An Introduction to Grassland Agriculture. 2003a. Vol. 2. Iowa State Press.
Collins, M., Owens, V.. Preservation of forage as hay and silage. In: Barnes R.F., Nelson C.J., Moore K.J., Collins M. (Eds.), Forages: Volume I: An Introduction to Grassland Agriculture 2003b (6th ed.). Iowa State Press.
Kung, L. Jr., Shaver, R., Grant, R. J., Schmidt, R. J.. Silage review: Interpretation of chemical, microbial, and organoleptic components of silages. Journal of Dairy Science, 2018. 101(5), 4020–4033.
Weiss, W. P., Underwood, J. P. Effects of moisture and wilting time on forage quality. The Professional Animal Scientist, 2020, 36(2),.132–140.
Savoie, P., Lemire, M., Beauregard, D.. Forage drying with field conditioners: Effects on drying rate and leaf loss. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 2020,36(3), 347–357.
Pettersson, Ö. Haymaking in northern climates. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Reports, 2017. No. 140.
Muck, R. E., Shinners, K. J. Conserved forage (hay and silage): Harvesting and storage. Agricultural Engineering International, 2001. 3(1), 1–17.
Rotz, C. A., & Muck, R. E.. Changes in forage quality during harvest and storage. In Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization. 1994,ASA, CSSA, SSSA.
Uden, P. Comparative digestibility of pelleted and long-stemmed hay in sheep. Journal of Animal Science, 1988. 66(12), 3292–3299.
Savoie, P., Jofriet, J. C. Silage storage. In Silage Science and Technology 2003. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA Vol. 42, 405–467.
Miller, K., Rotz, C. A. Chemical Conditioning of Forages for Preservation. Agricultural Systems, 1995. 49(2), 165–180.
Muck, R. E., Nadeau, E. M. G., McAllister, T. A., Contreras-Govea, F. E., Santos, M. C., Kung, L. Jr. Silage review: Recent advances and future uses of silage additives. J. of Dairy Science, 2018. 101(5), 3980–4000.
McDonald, P., Edwards, R. A., Greenhalgh, J. F. D., Morgan, C. A., Sinclair, L. A., Wilkinson, R. G. 2011. Animal Nutrition. Pearson Education.
Tosun, F. Altın, M. Çayır-Mera ve Yem Bitkileri. Ankara: Tarım Orman ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1981.
Richard, J. L. Some major mycotoxins and their mycotoxicoses-An overview. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 2007. 119(1-2), 3-10.
O’Brien, R. D., et al. Impact of environmental humidity on forage drying and storage. Journal of Agricultural Science, 2018. 156(4), 463-471.
Singh, S., et al.. Barriers to adoption of mechanized forage drying technologies. International Journal of Agricultural Extension, 2017,5(2), 89-97.
Kleyn, D. H. Drying of Forages. In Forage Preservation and Utilization. 1996,i FAO.
Wilkins, R. J., et al. Factors affecting forage drying rates. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 2001. 78(1), 7-17.
Zeng, R., Wang, X., Zhang, Y., Li, Y.. Effects of moisture content and microbial activity on aerobic stability of forages during drying. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 26(11), 2013,1583–1589.
Bolsen, K. K.. Harvest management of forage crops. Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization, 1994 ,235-269.
Alonso, A. M., Caballero, M. J. Effects of drying methods on the carotenoid content in alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Food Chemistry, 83(3), 2003. 431-436.
Elgersma, A., Tamminga, S., Wentink, G. H. Preservation of nutrients during haymaking and silage production. Grass and Forage Science, 2014, 59(2), 171-181.
Barnes, R. F., Miller, D. A., Nelson, C. J. Forages: The science of grassland agriculture (5th ed., Vol. II). 1995. Iowa State University Press.
Bryden, W. LMycotoxin contamination of the feed supply chain: Implications for animal productivity and feed security. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2012, 173(1–2), 134–158.
Nagaraja, T. G., Lechtenberg, K. F., Avery, T. B. Microbial interactions in silage. Journal of Dairy Science, 1997), 80(10), 2316–2323.
Müller, A., et al. Reducing feed losses to improve farm profitability: A review. Agricultural Systems, 2016, 146, 123-134.
Wilkins, R. J.. Silage and haylage quality and feed losses. Grassland Science in Europe, 2008,13, 541-545.
McKinnon, J. J., Fellner, V. Forage preservation technologies. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 1997. 65(1-4), 1-15.
Singh, R. P., et al. Storage pests and management of stored fodder. Journal of Pest Science, 2012. 85(1), 1-10.
Rahman, M. M., et al. Postharvest losses in stored feed and forages due to pests. Journal of Stored Products Research, 2011. 47(3), 166-172.
Muck, R. ESilage and hay preservation losses: influences and management. Proceedings of the Cornell Nutrition Conference, . 2010) 41-52.
Weiss, W.P. Estimating digestibility of forages by ruminants. Journal of Dairy Science, 1994. 77(6), 1859–1865.
Jung, H.G., Allen, M.S. Characteristics of plant cell walls affecting intake and digestibility of forages by ruminants. Journal of Animal Science, 1995.73(9), 2774–2790.
Oba, M., Allen, M.S. Effects of brown midrib corn silage on productivity of dairy cows: 1. Digestibility and milk yield. Journal of Dairy Science, 1999, 82(1), 133–142.
Jung, H. et al. "Mixed-species swards improve rumen function and forage quality." Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2022, 280, 115135.
Moore, K. et al. "Influence of maturity on forage quality." Crop Science, 2005, 45(1), 211-218.
Kim, Y. et al. "Leaf to stem ratio effects on nutritive value of hay." Journal of Applied Animal Research, 2024, 52(1), 65-74.
Nguyen, T. et al. "Stem thickness effects on forage digestibility in pasture grasses." Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2023, 295, 115483.
Garcia, M. et al. "Effects of drying techniques on forage chlorophyll retention." Grass and Forage Science, 2021, 76(3), 302-311.
Patel, R. et al. "Microbial spoilage in stored hay and effects on palatability." Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2022, 287, 115272.
Zhao, X. et al. "Impact of weed contamination on hay quality and animal health." Weed Research, 2023. 63(4), 255-268.
Vallentine, J. F. Grazing Management, 2000, Academic Press.
Ahmed, S. et al. "Influence of cellular metabolites on forage palatability and intake in ruminants." Journal of Animal Nutrition, 2024, 38(2), 120-135.
Dubeux, J. C. B. et al. "Forage drying conditions and nutritive value." Crop Science, 2011. 51(1), 16-25.
Tilley, J. M. A., Terry, R. A. "A two-stage technique for the in vitro digestion of forage crops." Journal of the British Grassland Society, 1963. 18(2), 104-111.
Van Soest, P. J. Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant, Cornell University Press. 1994.
Alçiçek, A. Süt sığırcılığında besleme uygulamaları ve maliyetler. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları. 2002.
Khota, W., Pholsen, S., Higgs, D., Cai, Y. The role of lactic acid bacteria on silage quality improvement in tropical and subtropical regions. International Journal of Agricultural Technology, 2020, 16(4), 837–846.
Kutlu, H. R., Görgülü, M., Uğur, F. Hayvan besleme. Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, 2005, Ders Kitabı No: 212.
Weinberg, Z. G., Muck, R. E. New trends and opportunities in the development and use of inoculants for silage 2021. M. Letters, 368(3).
Wilkinson, J. M., Davies, D. R. The aerobic stability of silage: Key findings and recent developments. Grass and Forage Science, 2013, 68(1), 1–19.
Tıknazoğlu, I. Yem bitkileri tarımında silaj yapımı. In Yem Bitkileri ve Silaj Teknolojisi2009), Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı Yayınları. 145–168.
Özinan, KHayvancılıkta yem bitkileri ve silaj yapımı. 2017, Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı Yayınları.
Yolcu, H., Tan, M. Süt sığırı işletmelerinde kaba yem üretiminin önemi ve kaba yem üretimini artırma yolları. Türkiye 10. Tarla Bitkileri Kongresi Bildirileri, 2008, 15–21.
Referanslar
Johnson, K. A., Johnson, D. E., Young, A. J. The role of dietary fiber in rumen pH and animal health. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2019. 255, 114190.
Thomas, D. L., Miller, T., Clark, B. Effective fiber and rumen health in dairy cows: Mechanisms and applications. 2022. J. of Dai. Res., 89(1).
Martinez, T., Johnson, M., Smith, D. Prevention of subacute ruminal acidosis through dietary management in dairy cows. J. of D. Science, 2021. 104(6), 6585-6595.
Anonim. (2023). Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle (8th ed.). The National Academies Press.
Lopez, S., Hervás, G., Frutos, P. Influence of pasture-based diets on fatty acid composition of milk. Animal, 2020. 14(3), 615-625.
Anderson, P., Smith, J., Clark, R. Effects of harvest timing on forage digestibility and animal performance. Journal of Animal Science, 2018. 96(4), 1456-1465.
Kirilov, A. The effect of wilting and drying methods on the nutritional quality of forage. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 2001. 7(2), 117–121.
Rotz, C. A., Buckmaster, D. R., Muck, R. E., Pitt, R. E.. Process and Environmental Engineering for Forage Harvesting and Preservation. 2003,ASAE Monograph.
Collins, M., Owens, V. Preservation of forage as hay and silage. In: Forages: An Introduction to Grassland Agriculture. 2003a. Vol. 2. Iowa State Press.
Collins, M., Owens, V.. Preservation of forage as hay and silage. In: Barnes R.F., Nelson C.J., Moore K.J., Collins M. (Eds.), Forages: Volume I: An Introduction to Grassland Agriculture 2003b (6th ed.). Iowa State Press.
Kung, L. Jr., Shaver, R., Grant, R. J., Schmidt, R. J.. Silage review: Interpretation of chemical, microbial, and organoleptic components of silages. Journal of Dairy Science, 2018. 101(5), 4020–4033.
Weiss, W. P., Underwood, J. P. Effects of moisture and wilting time on forage quality. The Professional Animal Scientist, 2020, 36(2),.132–140.
Savoie, P., Lemire, M., Beauregard, D.. Forage drying with field conditioners: Effects on drying rate and leaf loss. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 2020,36(3), 347–357.
Pettersson, Ö. Haymaking in northern climates. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Reports, 2017. No. 140.
Muck, R. E., Shinners, K. J. Conserved forage (hay and silage): Harvesting and storage. Agricultural Engineering International, 2001. 3(1), 1–17.
Rotz, C. A., & Muck, R. E.. Changes in forage quality during harvest and storage. In Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization. 1994,ASA, CSSA, SSSA.
Uden, P. Comparative digestibility of pelleted and long-stemmed hay in sheep. Journal of Animal Science, 1988. 66(12), 3292–3299.
Savoie, P., Jofriet, J. C. Silage storage. In Silage Science and Technology 2003. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA Vol. 42, 405–467.
Miller, K., Rotz, C. A. Chemical Conditioning of Forages for Preservation. Agricultural Systems, 1995. 49(2), 165–180.
Muck, R. E., Nadeau, E. M. G., McAllister, T. A., Contreras-Govea, F. E., Santos, M. C., Kung, L. Jr. Silage review: Recent advances and future uses of silage additives. J. of Dairy Science, 2018. 101(5), 3980–4000.
McDonald, P., Edwards, R. A., Greenhalgh, J. F. D., Morgan, C. A., Sinclair, L. A., Wilkinson, R. G. 2011. Animal Nutrition. Pearson Education.
Tosun, F. Altın, M. Çayır-Mera ve Yem Bitkileri. Ankara: Tarım Orman ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1981.
Richard, J. L. Some major mycotoxins and their mycotoxicoses-An overview. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 2007. 119(1-2), 3-10.
O’Brien, R. D., et al. Impact of environmental humidity on forage drying and storage. Journal of Agricultural Science, 2018. 156(4), 463-471.
Singh, S., et al.. Barriers to adoption of mechanized forage drying technologies. International Journal of Agricultural Extension, 2017,5(2), 89-97.
Kleyn, D. H. Drying of Forages. In Forage Preservation and Utilization. 1996,i FAO.
Wilkins, R. J., et al. Factors affecting forage drying rates. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 2001. 78(1), 7-17.
Zeng, R., Wang, X., Zhang, Y., Li, Y.. Effects of moisture content and microbial activity on aerobic stability of forages during drying. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 26(11), 2013,1583–1589.
Bolsen, K. K.. Harvest management of forage crops. Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization, 1994 ,235-269.
Alonso, A. M., Caballero, M. J. Effects of drying methods on the carotenoid content in alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Food Chemistry, 83(3), 2003. 431-436.
Elgersma, A., Tamminga, S., Wentink, G. H. Preservation of nutrients during haymaking and silage production. Grass and Forage Science, 2014, 59(2), 171-181.
Barnes, R. F., Miller, D. A., Nelson, C. J. Forages: The science of grassland agriculture (5th ed., Vol. II). 1995. Iowa State University Press.
Bryden, W. LMycotoxin contamination of the feed supply chain: Implications for animal productivity and feed security. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2012, 173(1–2), 134–158.
Nagaraja, T. G., Lechtenberg, K. F., Avery, T. B. Microbial interactions in silage. Journal of Dairy Science, 1997), 80(10), 2316–2323.
Müller, A., et al. Reducing feed losses to improve farm profitability: A review. Agricultural Systems, 2016, 146, 123-134.
Wilkins, R. J.. Silage and haylage quality and feed losses. Grassland Science in Europe, 2008,13, 541-545.
McKinnon, J. J., Fellner, V. Forage preservation technologies. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 1997. 65(1-4), 1-15.
Singh, R. P., et al. Storage pests and management of stored fodder. Journal of Pest Science, 2012. 85(1), 1-10.
Rahman, M. M., et al. Postharvest losses in stored feed and forages due to pests. Journal of Stored Products Research, 2011. 47(3), 166-172.
Muck, R. ESilage and hay preservation losses: influences and management. Proceedings of the Cornell Nutrition Conference, . 2010) 41-52.
Weiss, W.P. Estimating digestibility of forages by ruminants. Journal of Dairy Science, 1994. 77(6), 1859–1865.
Jung, H.G., Allen, M.S. Characteristics of plant cell walls affecting intake and digestibility of forages by ruminants. Journal of Animal Science, 1995.73(9), 2774–2790.
Oba, M., Allen, M.S. Effects of brown midrib corn silage on productivity of dairy cows: 1. Digestibility and milk yield. Journal of Dairy Science, 1999, 82(1), 133–142.
Jung, H. et al. "Mixed-species swards improve rumen function and forage quality." Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2022, 280, 115135.
Moore, K. et al. "Influence of maturity on forage quality." Crop Science, 2005, 45(1), 211-218.
Kim, Y. et al. "Leaf to stem ratio effects on nutritive value of hay." Journal of Applied Animal Research, 2024, 52(1), 65-74.
Nguyen, T. et al. "Stem thickness effects on forage digestibility in pasture grasses." Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2023, 295, 115483.
Garcia, M. et al. "Effects of drying techniques on forage chlorophyll retention." Grass and Forage Science, 2021, 76(3), 302-311.
Patel, R. et al. "Microbial spoilage in stored hay and effects on palatability." Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2022, 287, 115272.
Zhao, X. et al. "Impact of weed contamination on hay quality and animal health." Weed Research, 2023. 63(4), 255-268.
Vallentine, J. F. Grazing Management, 2000, Academic Press.
Ahmed, S. et al. "Influence of cellular metabolites on forage palatability and intake in ruminants." Journal of Animal Nutrition, 2024, 38(2), 120-135.
Dubeux, J. C. B. et al. "Forage drying conditions and nutritive value." Crop Science, 2011. 51(1), 16-25.
Tilley, J. M. A., Terry, R. A. "A two-stage technique for the in vitro digestion of forage crops." Journal of the British Grassland Society, 1963. 18(2), 104-111.
Van Soest, P. J. Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant, Cornell University Press. 1994.
Alçiçek, A. Süt sığırcılığında besleme uygulamaları ve maliyetler. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları. 2002.
Khota, W., Pholsen, S., Higgs, D., Cai, Y. The role of lactic acid bacteria on silage quality improvement in tropical and subtropical regions. International Journal of Agricultural Technology, 2020, 16(4), 837–846.
Kutlu, H. R., Görgülü, M., Uğur, F. Hayvan besleme. Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, 2005, Ders Kitabı No: 212.
Weinberg, Z. G., Muck, R. E. New trends and opportunities in the development and use of inoculants for silage 2021. M. Letters, 368(3).
Wilkinson, J. M., Davies, D. R. The aerobic stability of silage: Key findings and recent developments. Grass and Forage Science, 2013, 68(1), 1–19.
Tıknazoğlu, I. Yem bitkileri tarımında silaj yapımı. In Yem Bitkileri ve Silaj Teknolojisi2009), Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı Yayınları. 145–168.
Özinan, KHayvancılıkta yem bitkileri ve silaj yapımı. 2017, Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı Yayınları.
Yolcu, H., Tan, M. Süt sığırı işletmelerinde kaba yem üretiminin önemi ve kaba yem üretimini artırma yolları. Türkiye 10. Tarla Bitkileri Kongresi Bildirileri, 2008, 15–21.
