Nükleik Asitlerin Yapı ve Fonksiyonları
Özet
Nükleik asitler genetik bilgi taşıyan, kendini kopyalayabilen ve gen ifadesi yapabilen moleküllerdir. Nükleik asitlerin genetik materyal olarak ilk tanımlanmasından bu yana yapılan çalışmalar, çoğu Nobel Ödülü’ne layık görülen moleküler biyoloji bilimlerindeki dönüm noktalarıyla doludur. DNA canlı dünyasında baskın genetik materyaldir. Prokaryotlarda ve ökaryotlarda genler DNA yapısında olsa da bazı virüslerde genler DNA veya RNA yapısından oluşabilir. Nükleik asitler, bir organizmada ömür boyu oluşacak tüm biyolojik ve kimyasal olayları belirler. Watson ve Crick DNA'nın yapısını önerdiklerinden beri DNA ve onun nasıl çalıştığı hakkındaki bilgimiz neredeyse katlanarak arttı. Bu bölümde tanıtılan konular tüm canlı bilimi programlarında ele alınan önemli konulardır. Bunları anlamak, evrim ve hayvan çeşitliliğinden sağlık ve hastalığa kadar biyokimya biliminin tüm ilgili alanları için anahtardır.
Nucleic acids are molecules that carry genetic information, can replicate themselves, and can express genes. Studies conducted since the first identification of nucleic acids as genetic material have been full of milestones in molecular biology sciences, many of which have been awarded Nobel Prizes. DNA is the predominant genetic material in the living world. While genes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are DNA, genes in some viruses can be made up of DNA or RNA. Nucleic acids determine all biological and chemical events that will occur in an organism throughout its life. Since Watson and Crick proposed the structure of DNA, our knowledge of DNA and how it works has increased almost exponentially. The topics introduced in this section are important topics covered in all life science programs. Understanding them is key to all related areas of biochemistry, from evolution and animal diversity to health and disease.
Referanslar
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. The Structure and Function of DNA. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26821/
Arimbasseri AG, Rijal K, Maraia RJ. Transcription termination by the eukaryotic RNA polymerase III. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 2013;1829(3-4): 318–330. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2012.10.006
Austin WR, Armijo AL, Campbell DO, Singh AS, Hsieh T, Nathanson D, Herschman HR, Phelps ME, Witte ON, Czernin J, Radu CG. Nucleoside salvage pathway kinases regulate hematopoiesis by linking nucleotide metabolism with replication stress. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2012;209(12): 2215–2228. doi: 10.1084/jem.20121061
Bacolla A, Cooper DN, Vasquez KM. DNA structure matters. Genome Medicine. 2013;5(6): 51. doi: 10.1186/gm455
Balzarini J, Gago F, Kulik W, van Kuilenburg AB, Karlsson A, Peterson MA, Robins MJ. Introduction of a fluorine atom at C3 of 3-deazauridine shifts its antimetabolic activity from inhibition of CTP synthetase to inhibition of orotidylate decarboxylase, an early event in the de novo pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis pathway. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2012;287(36): 30444–30454.
Boison D, Yegutkin GG. Adenosine Metabolism: Emerging Concepts for Cancer Therapy. Cancer Cell. 2019;36(6): 582–596. doi: 10.1016/j.ccell.2019.10.007
Bzowska A, Kulikowska E, Shugar D. Purine nucleoside phosphorylases: properties, functions, and clinical aspects. Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2000;88(3): 349–425. doi: 10.1016/s0163-7258(00)00097-8
Condrat CE, Thompson DC, Barbu MG, Bugnar OL, Boboc A, Cretoiu D, Suciu N, Cretoiu SM, Voinea SC. miRNAs as biomarkers in disease: Latest findings regarding their role in diagnosis and prognosis. Cells. 2020;9(2): 276. doi: 10.3390/cells9020276
Cooper TA, Wan L, Dreyfuss G. RNA and disease. Cell. 2009;136(4): 777–793. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.011
Dahm R. Discovering DNA: Friedrich Miescher and the early years of nucleic acid research. Human Genetics. 2008:122(6): 565–581. doi: 10.1007/s00439-007-0433-0
Dana H, Chalbatani GM, Mahmoodzadeh H, Karimloo R, Rezaiean O, Moradzadeh A, Mehmandoost N, Moazzen F, Mazraeh A, Marmari V, Ebrahimi M, Rashno MM, Abadi SJ, Gharagouzlo E. Molecular Mechanisms and Biological Functions of siRNA. International Journal of Biomedical Science 2017;13(2): 48–57.
Denning EJ, MacKerell AD Jr. Intrinsic contribution of the 2'-hydroxyl to RNA conformational heterogeneity. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2012;134(5): 2800–2806. doi: 10.1021/ja211328g
Dickerson RE, Drew HR, Conner BN, Wing RM, Fratini AV, Kopka ML. The anatomy of A-, B-, and Z-DNA. Science. 1982;216(4545): 475–485. doi: 10.1126/science.7071593
Soter de Mariz E Miranda L, Schroeder Borges Gonçalves R, Uziel J, Obika S, Lubin-Germain N. Editorial: Nucleosides, nucleotides and nucleic acids: chemistry and biology. Frontiers in Chemistry 2024;12: 1401510. doi:10.3389/fchem.2024.1401510
Ehrenberg M. Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. 2009 Structure and Function of the Ribosome, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/advancedchemistryprize2009.pdf
Ekundayo B, Bleichert F. Origins of DNA replication. PLoS Genetics. 2019;15(9): e1008320. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008320
Evans DR, Guy HI. Mammalian pyrimidine biosynthesis: fresh insights into an ancient pathway. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2004;279(32): 33035–33038. doi: 10.1074/jbc.R400007200
Fridman A, Saha A, Chan A, Casteel DE, Pilz RB, Boss GR.Cell cycle regulation of purine synthesis by phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate and inorganic phosphate. Biochemisty Journal. 2013;454(1): 91–99. doi: 10.1042/BJ20130153
Garner AL. Nucleosides, Nucleotides and nucleic acids as therapeutics: a virtual special ıssue. ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science. 2021;4(6): 1714–1715.
Gavrilov K, Saltzman WM. Therapeutic siRNA: principles, challenges, and strategies. Yale Journal of Biology Medicine. 2012;85(2): 187–200.
Gerstein MB, Bruce C, Rozowsky JS, Zheng D, Du J, Korbel JO, Emanuelsson O, Zhang ZD, Weissman S, Snyder M. What is a gene, post-ENCODE? History and updated definition. Genome Research. 2007; (6):669–681. doi: 10.1101/gr.6339607
Ghannam JY, Wang J, Jan A. Biochemistry, DNA Structure. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
Gooding JR, Jensen MV, Dai X, Wenner BR, Lu D, Arumugam R, Ferdaoussi M, MacDonald PE, Newgard CB. adenylosuccinate ıs an ınsulin secretagogue derived from glucose-ınduced purine metabolism. Cell Reports 2015;13(1): 157–167. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.08.072
Huang RM, Chen YN, Zeng Z, Gao CH, Su X, Peng Y. Marine nucleosides: structure, bioactivity, synthesis and biosynthesis. Marine Drugs. 2014;12(12): 5817–5838. doi:10.3390/md12125817
Huang Z, Xie N, Illes P, Di Virgilio F, Ulrich H, Semyanov A, Verkhratsky A, Sperlagh B, Yu SG, Huang C, Tang Y. From purines to purinergic signalling: molecular functions and human diseases. Signal Transduction Target and Therapy. 2021; 6(1):162. doi: 10.1038/s41392-021-00553-z
Ishii KJ, Akira S. Potential link between the immune system and metabolism of nucleic acids. Current Opinion in Immunology. 2008;20(5): 524–529. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2008.07.002
Jensen KF, Dandanell G, Hove-Jensen B, WillemoËs M. Nucleotides, nucleosides, and nucleobases. EcoSal Plus. 2008. 3(1). doi: 10.1128/ecosalplus.3.6.2
Johnson ZL, Lee JH, Lee K, Lee M, Kwon DY, Hong J, Lee SY. Structural basis of nucleoside and nucleoside drug selectivity by concentrative nucleoside transporters. Elife. 2014;3:e03604. Published 2014 Jul 31. doi:10.7554/eLife.03604
Kornberg R. The molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription (Nobel Lecture). Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2007;46(37): 6956–6965. doi: 10.1002/anie.200701832.
Krueger AT, Kool ET. Model systems for understanding DNA base pairing. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 2007;11(6): 588–594. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.09.019
Kumar S, Chinnusamy V, Mohapatra T. Epigenetics of modified DNA bases: 5-methylcytosine and beyond. Frontiers in Genetics. 2018; 9:640. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00640
Lane AN, Fan TW. Regulation of mammalian nucleotide metabolism and biosynthesis. Nucleic Acids Research. 2015;43(4): 2466–2485. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkv047
Liyanage VR, Jarmasz JS, Murugeshan N, Del Bigio MR, Rastegar M, Davie JR. DNA modifications: function and applications in normal and disease States. Biology (Basel). 2014;3(4): 670–723. doi: 10.3390/biology3040670
Löffler M, Fairbanks LD, Zameitat E, Marinaki AM, Simmonds HA. Pyrimidine pathways in health and disease. Trends in Molecular Medicine. 2005;11(9): 430–437. doi: 10.1016/j.molmed.2005.07.003
Ma J, Wang MD. DNA supercoiling during transcription. Biophys Rev. 2016;8(Suppl 1): 75–87. doi: 10.1007/s12551-016-0215-9
Mikkola S, Lönnberg T, Lönnberg H. Phosphodiester models for cleavage of nucleic acids. Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry. 2018;14: 803–837. doi: 10.3762/bjoc.14.68
Minchin S, Lodge J. Understanding biochemistry: structure and function of nucleic acids. Essays Biochemistry. 2019;63(4): 433–456. doi: 10.1042/EBC20180038
Minchin SD, Busby SJW. Transcription factors. In Brenner’s encyclopedia of genetics (Maloy S. and Hughes K., eds), 2013, Elsevier, U.S.A.
O'Brien J, Hayder H, Zayed Y, Peng C. Overview of MicroRNA biogenesis, mechanisms of actions, and circulation. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018;9:402. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00402
O'Donnell M, Langston L, Stillman B. Principles and concepts of DNA replication in bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives Biology. 2013;5(7): a010108. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a010108
Raina M, Ibba M. tRNAs as regulators of biological processes. Frontiers in Genetics. 2014;5: 171. doi:10.3389/fgene.2014.00171
Rios AC, Tor Y. On the origin of the canonical nucleobases: an assessment of selection pressures across chemical and early biological evolution. Israel Journal of Chemistry. 2013;53(6-7): 469–483. doi:10.1002/ijch.201300009
Roberts MAJ. Recombinant DNA technology and DNA sequencing. Essays Biochemistry 2019;63(4): 457–468. doi: 10.1042/EBC20180039
Rudolph FB. The biochemistry and physiology of nucleotides. Journal of Nutrion. 1994;124(1Suppl):124S-127S.doi: 10.1093/jn/124.suppl_1.124S
Saenger W. Structure and function of nucleosides and nucleotides. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 1973;12(8): 591-601. doi: 10.1002/anie.197305911
Simpson B, Tupper C, Al Aboud NM. Genetics, DNA Packaging. 2023 May 29. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
Smith JL. Glutamine PRPP amidotransferase: snapshots of an enzyme in action. Current Opinion in Structural Biology. 1998;(6): 686-94. doi: 10.1016/s0959-440x(98)80087-0
Szabat M, Pedzinski T, Czapik T, Kierzek E, Kierzek R. Aspects of the antiparallel and parallel duplexes formed by DNA, 2'-o-methyl RNA and RNA oligonucleotides. PLoS One. 2015;10(11): e0143354. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143354
Travers A, Muskhelishvili G. DNA structure and function. FEBS Journal. 2015;282(12): 2279-95. doi: 10.1111/febs.13307
Valadkhan S, Gunawardane LS. Role of small nuclear RNAs in eukaryotic gene expression. Essays Biochemistry. 2013;54: 79-90. doi: 10.1042/bse0540079
Walter NG, Engelke DR. Ribozymes: catalytic RNAs that cut things, make things, and do odd and useful jobs. Biologist (London). 2002;4(5): 199–203.
Wang D, Farhana A. Biochemistry, RNA Structure. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL); 2023.
Wang F, Li P, Chu HC, Lo PK. Nucleic acids and their analogues for biomedical applications. Biosensors (Basel). 2022;12(2): 93. doi: 10.3390/bios12020093
Wang L. Mitochondrial purine and pyrimidine metabolism and beyond. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids. 2016;(10-12): 578–594. doi: 10.1080/15257770.2015.1125001
Zhao H, Chiaro CR, Zhang L, Smith PB, Chan CY, Pedley AM, Pugh RJ, French JB, Patterson AD, Benkovic SJ. Quantitative analysis of purine nucleotides indicates that purinosomes increase de novo purine biosynthesis. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2015;290(11): 6705–6713. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M114.628701
Zhao Y, Zuo X, Li Q, Chen F, Chen YR, Deng J, Han D, Hao C, Huang F, Huang Y, Ke G, Kuang H, Li F, Li J, Li M, Li N, Lin Z, Liu D, Liu J, Liu L, Liu X, Lu C, Luo F, Mao X, Sun J, Tang B, Wang F, Wang J, Wang L, Wang S, Wu L, Wu ZS, Xia F, Xu C, Yang Y, Yuan BF, Yuan Q, Zhang C, Zhu Z, Yang C, Zhang XB, Yang H, Tan W, Fan C. Nucleic Acids Analysis. Sci China Chemistry. 2021;64(2): 171–203. doi: 10.1007/s11426-020-9864-7
Referanslar
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. The Structure and Function of DNA. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26821/
Arimbasseri AG, Rijal K, Maraia RJ. Transcription termination by the eukaryotic RNA polymerase III. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 2013;1829(3-4): 318–330. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2012.10.006
Austin WR, Armijo AL, Campbell DO, Singh AS, Hsieh T, Nathanson D, Herschman HR, Phelps ME, Witte ON, Czernin J, Radu CG. Nucleoside salvage pathway kinases regulate hematopoiesis by linking nucleotide metabolism with replication stress. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2012;209(12): 2215–2228. doi: 10.1084/jem.20121061
Bacolla A, Cooper DN, Vasquez KM. DNA structure matters. Genome Medicine. 2013;5(6): 51. doi: 10.1186/gm455
Balzarini J, Gago F, Kulik W, van Kuilenburg AB, Karlsson A, Peterson MA, Robins MJ. Introduction of a fluorine atom at C3 of 3-deazauridine shifts its antimetabolic activity from inhibition of CTP synthetase to inhibition of orotidylate decarboxylase, an early event in the de novo pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis pathway. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2012;287(36): 30444–30454.
Boison D, Yegutkin GG. Adenosine Metabolism: Emerging Concepts for Cancer Therapy. Cancer Cell. 2019;36(6): 582–596. doi: 10.1016/j.ccell.2019.10.007
Bzowska A, Kulikowska E, Shugar D. Purine nucleoside phosphorylases: properties, functions, and clinical aspects. Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2000;88(3): 349–425. doi: 10.1016/s0163-7258(00)00097-8
Condrat CE, Thompson DC, Barbu MG, Bugnar OL, Boboc A, Cretoiu D, Suciu N, Cretoiu SM, Voinea SC. miRNAs as biomarkers in disease: Latest findings regarding their role in diagnosis and prognosis. Cells. 2020;9(2): 276. doi: 10.3390/cells9020276
Cooper TA, Wan L, Dreyfuss G. RNA and disease. Cell. 2009;136(4): 777–793. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.02.011
Dahm R. Discovering DNA: Friedrich Miescher and the early years of nucleic acid research. Human Genetics. 2008:122(6): 565–581. doi: 10.1007/s00439-007-0433-0
Dana H, Chalbatani GM, Mahmoodzadeh H, Karimloo R, Rezaiean O, Moradzadeh A, Mehmandoost N, Moazzen F, Mazraeh A, Marmari V, Ebrahimi M, Rashno MM, Abadi SJ, Gharagouzlo E. Molecular Mechanisms and Biological Functions of siRNA. International Journal of Biomedical Science 2017;13(2): 48–57.
Denning EJ, MacKerell AD Jr. Intrinsic contribution of the 2'-hydroxyl to RNA conformational heterogeneity. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2012;134(5): 2800–2806. doi: 10.1021/ja211328g
Dickerson RE, Drew HR, Conner BN, Wing RM, Fratini AV, Kopka ML. The anatomy of A-, B-, and Z-DNA. Science. 1982;216(4545): 475–485. doi: 10.1126/science.7071593
Soter de Mariz E Miranda L, Schroeder Borges Gonçalves R, Uziel J, Obika S, Lubin-Germain N. Editorial: Nucleosides, nucleotides and nucleic acids: chemistry and biology. Frontiers in Chemistry 2024;12: 1401510. doi:10.3389/fchem.2024.1401510
Ehrenberg M. Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. 2009 Structure and Function of the Ribosome, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/advancedchemistryprize2009.pdf
Ekundayo B, Bleichert F. Origins of DNA replication. PLoS Genetics. 2019;15(9): e1008320. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008320
Evans DR, Guy HI. Mammalian pyrimidine biosynthesis: fresh insights into an ancient pathway. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2004;279(32): 33035–33038. doi: 10.1074/jbc.R400007200
Fridman A, Saha A, Chan A, Casteel DE, Pilz RB, Boss GR.Cell cycle regulation of purine synthesis by phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate and inorganic phosphate. Biochemisty Journal. 2013;454(1): 91–99. doi: 10.1042/BJ20130153
Garner AL. Nucleosides, Nucleotides and nucleic acids as therapeutics: a virtual special ıssue. ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science. 2021;4(6): 1714–1715.
Gavrilov K, Saltzman WM. Therapeutic siRNA: principles, challenges, and strategies. Yale Journal of Biology Medicine. 2012;85(2): 187–200.
Gerstein MB, Bruce C, Rozowsky JS, Zheng D, Du J, Korbel JO, Emanuelsson O, Zhang ZD, Weissman S, Snyder M. What is a gene, post-ENCODE? History and updated definition. Genome Research. 2007; (6):669–681. doi: 10.1101/gr.6339607
Ghannam JY, Wang J, Jan A. Biochemistry, DNA Structure. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
Gooding JR, Jensen MV, Dai X, Wenner BR, Lu D, Arumugam R, Ferdaoussi M, MacDonald PE, Newgard CB. adenylosuccinate ıs an ınsulin secretagogue derived from glucose-ınduced purine metabolism. Cell Reports 2015;13(1): 157–167. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.08.072
Huang RM, Chen YN, Zeng Z, Gao CH, Su X, Peng Y. Marine nucleosides: structure, bioactivity, synthesis and biosynthesis. Marine Drugs. 2014;12(12): 5817–5838. doi:10.3390/md12125817
Huang Z, Xie N, Illes P, Di Virgilio F, Ulrich H, Semyanov A, Verkhratsky A, Sperlagh B, Yu SG, Huang C, Tang Y. From purines to purinergic signalling: molecular functions and human diseases. Signal Transduction Target and Therapy. 2021; 6(1):162. doi: 10.1038/s41392-021-00553-z
Ishii KJ, Akira S. Potential link between the immune system and metabolism of nucleic acids. Current Opinion in Immunology. 2008;20(5): 524–529. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2008.07.002
Jensen KF, Dandanell G, Hove-Jensen B, WillemoËs M. Nucleotides, nucleosides, and nucleobases. EcoSal Plus. 2008. 3(1). doi: 10.1128/ecosalplus.3.6.2
Johnson ZL, Lee JH, Lee K, Lee M, Kwon DY, Hong J, Lee SY. Structural basis of nucleoside and nucleoside drug selectivity by concentrative nucleoside transporters. Elife. 2014;3:e03604. Published 2014 Jul 31. doi:10.7554/eLife.03604
Kornberg R. The molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription (Nobel Lecture). Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2007;46(37): 6956–6965. doi: 10.1002/anie.200701832.
Krueger AT, Kool ET. Model systems for understanding DNA base pairing. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 2007;11(6): 588–594. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.09.019
Kumar S, Chinnusamy V, Mohapatra T. Epigenetics of modified DNA bases: 5-methylcytosine and beyond. Frontiers in Genetics. 2018; 9:640. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00640
Lane AN, Fan TW. Regulation of mammalian nucleotide metabolism and biosynthesis. Nucleic Acids Research. 2015;43(4): 2466–2485. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkv047
Liyanage VR, Jarmasz JS, Murugeshan N, Del Bigio MR, Rastegar M, Davie JR. DNA modifications: function and applications in normal and disease States. Biology (Basel). 2014;3(4): 670–723. doi: 10.3390/biology3040670
Löffler M, Fairbanks LD, Zameitat E, Marinaki AM, Simmonds HA. Pyrimidine pathways in health and disease. Trends in Molecular Medicine. 2005;11(9): 430–437. doi: 10.1016/j.molmed.2005.07.003
Ma J, Wang MD. DNA supercoiling during transcription. Biophys Rev. 2016;8(Suppl 1): 75–87. doi: 10.1007/s12551-016-0215-9
Mikkola S, Lönnberg T, Lönnberg H. Phosphodiester models for cleavage of nucleic acids. Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry. 2018;14: 803–837. doi: 10.3762/bjoc.14.68
Minchin S, Lodge J. Understanding biochemistry: structure and function of nucleic acids. Essays Biochemistry. 2019;63(4): 433–456. doi: 10.1042/EBC20180038
Minchin SD, Busby SJW. Transcription factors. In Brenner’s encyclopedia of genetics (Maloy S. and Hughes K., eds), 2013, Elsevier, U.S.A.
O'Brien J, Hayder H, Zayed Y, Peng C. Overview of MicroRNA biogenesis, mechanisms of actions, and circulation. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018;9:402. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00402
O'Donnell M, Langston L, Stillman B. Principles and concepts of DNA replication in bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives Biology. 2013;5(7): a010108. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a010108
Raina M, Ibba M. tRNAs as regulators of biological processes. Frontiers in Genetics. 2014;5: 171. doi:10.3389/fgene.2014.00171
Rios AC, Tor Y. On the origin of the canonical nucleobases: an assessment of selection pressures across chemical and early biological evolution. Israel Journal of Chemistry. 2013;53(6-7): 469–483. doi:10.1002/ijch.201300009
Roberts MAJ. Recombinant DNA technology and DNA sequencing. Essays Biochemistry 2019;63(4): 457–468. doi: 10.1042/EBC20180039
Rudolph FB. The biochemistry and physiology of nucleotides. Journal of Nutrion. 1994;124(1Suppl):124S-127S.doi: 10.1093/jn/124.suppl_1.124S
Saenger W. Structure and function of nucleosides and nucleotides. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 1973;12(8): 591-601. doi: 10.1002/anie.197305911
Simpson B, Tupper C, Al Aboud NM. Genetics, DNA Packaging. 2023 May 29. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
Smith JL. Glutamine PRPP amidotransferase: snapshots of an enzyme in action. Current Opinion in Structural Biology. 1998;(6): 686-94. doi: 10.1016/s0959-440x(98)80087-0
Szabat M, Pedzinski T, Czapik T, Kierzek E, Kierzek R. Aspects of the antiparallel and parallel duplexes formed by DNA, 2'-o-methyl RNA and RNA oligonucleotides. PLoS One. 2015;10(11): e0143354. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143354
Travers A, Muskhelishvili G. DNA structure and function. FEBS Journal. 2015;282(12): 2279-95. doi: 10.1111/febs.13307
Valadkhan S, Gunawardane LS. Role of small nuclear RNAs in eukaryotic gene expression. Essays Biochemistry. 2013;54: 79-90. doi: 10.1042/bse0540079
Walter NG, Engelke DR. Ribozymes: catalytic RNAs that cut things, make things, and do odd and useful jobs. Biologist (London). 2002;4(5): 199–203.
Wang D, Farhana A. Biochemistry, RNA Structure. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL); 2023.
Wang F, Li P, Chu HC, Lo PK. Nucleic acids and their analogues for biomedical applications. Biosensors (Basel). 2022;12(2): 93. doi: 10.3390/bios12020093
Wang L. Mitochondrial purine and pyrimidine metabolism and beyond. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids. 2016;(10-12): 578–594. doi: 10.1080/15257770.2015.1125001
Zhao H, Chiaro CR, Zhang L, Smith PB, Chan CY, Pedley AM, Pugh RJ, French JB, Patterson AD, Benkovic SJ. Quantitative analysis of purine nucleotides indicates that purinosomes increase de novo purine biosynthesis. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2015;290(11): 6705–6713. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M114.628701
Zhao Y, Zuo X, Li Q, Chen F, Chen YR, Deng J, Han D, Hao C, Huang F, Huang Y, Ke G, Kuang H, Li F, Li J, Li M, Li N, Lin Z, Liu D, Liu J, Liu L, Liu X, Lu C, Luo F, Mao X, Sun J, Tang B, Wang F, Wang J, Wang L, Wang S, Wu L, Wu ZS, Xia F, Xu C, Yang Y, Yuan BF, Yuan Q, Zhang C, Zhu Z, Yang C, Zhang XB, Yang H, Tan W, Fan C. Nucleic Acids Analysis. Sci China Chemistry. 2021;64(2): 171–203. doi: 10.1007/s11426-020-9864-7
