Lipitler
Özet
Lipitler, suda çözünmeyen ve polar olmayan çözücülerde çözünebilen heterojen bir biyomolekül grubudur. Bu gruba yağlar, mumlar, steroller, trigliseritler, fosfolipitler, glikolipitler ve yağda çözünen vitaminler gibi pek çok farklı bileşik dahil edilir. Yapısal olarak karbon, hidrojen ve oksijen elementlerinden oluşan lipitler, hücre zarlarının temel yapı taşlarını oluşturur, enerji deposu görevi görür ve çeşitli biyolojik süreçlerde sinyal iletimi, vitamin emilimi ve yalıtım gibi hayati roller üstlenir. Lipitlerin benzersiz kimyasal ve fiziksel özellikleri, onların biyolojik sistemlerde oldukça çeşitli işlevler üstlenmesini sağlar. Özellikle yağ asidi zincirlerinin uzunluğu, doygunluk derecesi ve omurga yapısı gibi faktörler, lipitlerin sınıflandırılmasında ve işlevsel özelliklerinde belirleyici olur. Ayrıca lipitlerin izomerik formları ve modifikasyonları da hücresel faaliyetleri doğrudan etkileyebilir. Lipitlerin enerji verimliliği oldukça yüksektir; gram başına karbonhidrat ve proteinlere göre yaklaşık iki kat daha fazla enerji sağlarlar, ancak bu enerjinin açığa çıkması daha yavaştır ve oksijene ihtiyaç duyar.
Lipitler, yapısal çeşitliliklerine göre basit lipitler (örneğin trigliseritler ve mumlar), kompleks lipitler (fosfolipitler, glikolipitler, arkeal eter lipitler, steroller gibi) ve türev lipitler (eikosanoidler, terpenler) olarak sınıflandırılır. Trigliseritler vücutta başlıca enerji depolayıcı olarak görev yaparken, mumlar doğal koruyucu işlev görür. Hücre zarlarında yer alan kompleks lipitler, zarın akışkanlığını ve seçici geçirgenliğini düzenler. Fosfolipitler, gliserol veya sfingozin omurgası üzerinde fosfat ve çeşitli baş gruplar içeren moleküller olup, zar asimetrisinin ve sinyal iletiminin düzenlenmesinde önemli yer tutar. Ayrıca eikosanoidler gibi lipit türevleri lokal hormon olarak enflamasyon, ağrı ve immün yanıt gibi süreçleri düzenler. Esansiyel yağ asitleri olan omega-3 ve omega-6 yağları, organizma tarafından sentezlenemediğinden dışarıdan alınmalıdır; bu yağlar özellikle beyin fonksiyonu, kardiyovasküler sağlık ve bağışıklık sistemi için vazgeçilmezdir. Lipitlerin bu çok yönlü doğası, onları hem temel hücresel yapı taşları hem de dinamik biyokimyasal regülatörler haline getirir.
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of biomolecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. This group includes a wide variety of compounds such as fats, waxes, sterols, triglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids, and fat-soluble vitamins. Structurally composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, lipids form the essential components of cell membranes, serve as energy reserves, and play critical roles in various biological processes such as signal transduction, vitamin absorption, and thermal insulation. Their unique chemical and physical properties enable lipids to perform highly diverse functions in biological systems. In particular, the length of fatty acid chains, degree of saturation, and backbone structure are key factors in lipid classification and functional properties. Additionally, the isomeric forms and modifications of lipids can directly influence cellular activity. Lipids are highly energy-efficient, providing nearly twice as much energy per gram as carbohydrates and proteins; however, the release of this energy is slower and requires oxygen.
Based on their structural diversity, lipids are classified as simple lipids (e.g., triglycerides and waxes), complex lipids (e.g., phospholipids, glycolipids, archaeal ether lipids, and sterols), and derived lipids (e.g., eicosanoids and terpenes). Triglycerides primarily function as energy storage molecules in the body, while waxes serve as natural protective agents. Complex lipids in cell membranes regulate membrane fluidity and selective permeability. Phospholipids, which consist of a glycerol or sphingosine backbone attached to phosphate groups and various head groups, play a key role in maintaining membrane asymmetry and regulating signal transduction. Furthermore, lipid derivatives such as eicosanoids act as local hormones that regulate processes like inflammation, pain, and immune responses. Essential fatty acids, such as omega-3 and omega-6, must be obtained from the diet as they cannot be synthesized by the body; these lipids are crucial for brain function, cardiovascular health, and immune system integrity. The multifaceted nature of lipids makes them both fundamental structural elements of cells and dynamic biochemical regulators.
Referanslar
Adams, R, Reed, B. Steroid Metabolism and Hormonal Regulation, London: Cambridge University Press; 2021.
Albers SV, Meyer B H. The archaeal cell envelope. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2011; 9(6): 414-426.
Alberts, B, Johnson, A, Lewis, J, Morgan, D, Raff, M, Roberts, K, Walter, P. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 2015; 6th edition. Garland Science.
Allen TM, Cullis PR. Liposomal drug delivery systems: from concept to clinical applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2013; 65(1): 36-48.
Anderson, R, Miller, G, Roberts, H. Prostaglandins and Their Clinical Applications, Hoboken: Wiley; 2021.
Balla T. Phosphoinositides: tiny lipits with giant impact on cell regulation. Physiol Rev. 2013; 93(3): 1019-137.
Bazan NG. Synaptic signaling by lipits in the life and death of neurons. Mol Neurobiol. 2005; 31(1-3): 219-30.
Bendelac A, Savage PB, Teyton L. The biology of NKT cells. Annu Rev Immunol. 2007; 25:297-336.
Berg, JM, Tymoczko, J.L, Gatto Jr, GJ, Stryer, L. Biochemistry. 2015; 8th Edition, W.H. Freeman & Company, New York, NY.
Bochkov VN, Oskolkova OV, Birukov KG, Levonen AL, Binder CJ, Stöckl J. Generation and biological activities of oxidized phospholipits. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2010; 12(8): 1009-59.
Brites P, Waterham HR, Wanders RJ. Functions and biosynthesis of plasmalogens in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2004; 1636(2-3): 219-31. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2003.12.010.
Brown DA, London E. Structure and function of sphingolipit- and cholesterol-rich membrane rafts. J Biol Chem. 2000; 275(23): 17221-4.
Brown, P, Johnson, L, Davis, R. Lipit Mediators and Their Roles in Inflammation, Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2018.
Chaurasia B, Summers SA. Ceramides in Metabolism: Key Lipotoxic Players. Annu Rev Physiol. 2021; 83:303-330. doi: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-031620-093815.
Chicco AJ, Sparagna GC. Role of cardiolipin alterations in mitochondrial dysfunction and disease. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2007; 292(1): C33-44.
Christie WW, Han X. Lipit Analysis: Isolation, Separation, Identification, and Lipitomic Analysis. 2010; 4th Edition. The Oily Press.
Dendrou CA, Fugger L, Friese MA. Immunopathology of multiple sclerosis. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2015; 15(9): 545-58.
Dennis EA, Norris PC. Eicosanoid storm in infection and inflammation. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2015; 15(8): 511-23.
Devaux PF. Static and dynamic lipit asymmetry in cell membranes. Biochemistry. 1991; 30(5): 1163-73.
Di Paolo G, De Camilli P. Phosphoinositides in cell regulation and membrane dynamics. Nature. 2006:12; 443(7112): 651-7.
Fahy E, Subramaniam S, Murphy RC, Nishijima M, Raetz CR, Shimizu T, Spener F, van Meer G, Wakelam MJ, Dennis EA. Update of the LIPIT MAPS comprehensive classification system for lipits. J Lipit Res. 2009; 50 Suppl(Suppl): S9-14. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R800095-JLR200.
Farooqui AA, Horrocks LA. Plasmalogens: workhorse lipits of membranes in normal and injured neurons and glia. Neuroscientist. 2001; 7(3): 232-45.
Favilla AB, Horning M, Costa DP. Advances in thermal physiology of diving marine mammals: The dual role of peripheral perfusion. Temperature (Austin). 2021; 9(1): 46-66.
Frayn KN. Adipose tissue as a buffer for daily lipit flux. Diabetologia. 2002; 45(9): 1201-10.
Fruman DA, Chiu H, Hopkins BD, Bagrodia S, Cantley LC, Abraham RT. The PI3K Pathway in Human Disease. Cell. 2017; 170(4): 605-635. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.07.029.
Garrett, RH, Grisham, CM. Biochemistry, 7th edition. Boston, USA: Cengage Publishing; 2023.
Ginsberg HN, Fisher EA. The ever-expanding role of degradation in the regulation of apolipoprotein B metabolism. J Lipit Res. 2009; 50 Suppl(Suppl): S162-6. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R800090-JLR200.
Gurr MI, Harwood JL, Frayn KN. Lipit Biochemistry: An Introduction (6th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell, 2016.
Hakomori S. Glycosphingolipits in cellular interaction, differentiation, and oncogenesis. Annu Rev Biochem. 1981; 50:733-64.
Han X, Gross RW. The foundations and development of lipitomics. Journal of Lipit Research. 2022; 63(2): 100164. doi: 10.1016/j.jlr.2021.100164.
Hannun YA, Obeid LM. Sphingolipits and their metabolism in physiology and disease. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 2018; 19(3): 175-191.
Harayama T, Riezman H. Understanding the diversity of membrane lipit composition. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2018; 19(5): 281-296.
Harris, D, Williams, B, Lee, M. Bioactive Terpenes in Natural Products Research. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2022.
Houtkooper RH, Vaz FM. Cardiolipin, the heart of mitochondrial metabolism. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 2008; 65(16): 2493-506.
Ishii S, Shimizu T. Platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor and genetically engineered PAF receptor mutant mice. Prog Lipit Res. 2000; 39(1): 41-82.
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) Guidelines
Jones, T, & Green, S. Eicosanoids and Their Biological Functions, New York: Academic Press; 2019.
Kathleen M. Botham, Peter A. Mayes. Chapter 21: Lipits of Physiologic Significance in: Kennelly P.J, Botham K.M, McGuinness O.P, Rodwell V.W, Weil P(Eds.), Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry, 32nd Edition. McGraw Hill Education.
Kharkwal SS, Arora P, Porcelli SA. Glycolipit activators of invariant NKT cells as vaccine adjuvants. Immunogenetics. 2016; 68(8): 597-610.
Kim HY, Huang BX, Spector AA. Phosphatidylserine in the brain: metabolism and function. Progress in Lipit Research. 2014; 56:1-18.
Kobayashi K, Endo K, Wada H. Roles of Lipits in Photosynthesis. Subcell Biochem. 2016; 86:21-49.
Koga Y, Morii H. Recent advances in structural research on ether lipits from archaea including comparative and physiological aspects. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 2005; 69(11): 2019-34. doi: 10.1271/bbb.69.2019. PMID: 16306681.
Köfeler HC, Ahrends R, Baker ES, Ekroos K, Han X, Hoffmann N, Holčapek M, Wenk MR, Liebisch G. Recommendations for good practice in MS-based lipitomics. Journal of Lipit Research. 2021; 62:100138.
Kritchevsky D. Diet and atherosclerosis. Am Heart J. 1999; 138(5 Pt 2): S426-30.
Li Z, Vance DE. (2008). Phosphatidylcholine and choline homeostasis. J Lipit Res. 2008; 49(6): 1187-94.
Lingwood D, Simons K. Lipit rafts as a membrane-organizing principle. Science. 2010; 327(5961): 46-50.
Lipitomics Standards Initiative Consortium. Lipitomics needs more standardization. Nature Metabolism. 2019; 1(8): 745-747.
Liu P, Zhu W, Chen C, Yan B, Zhu L, Chen X, Peng C. The mechanisms of lysophosphatidylcholine in the development of diseases. Life Sciences. 2020; 247, 117443.
Liwanag, H. E, Berta, A, Costa, D. P, Abney, M, & Williams, T. M. Morphological and thermal properties of mammalian insulation: the evolutionary transition to blubber in pinnipeds. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2012; 107:774-787.
Mahley RW, Huang Y. Apolipoprotein e sets the stage: response to injury triggers neuropathology. Neuron. 2012; 76(5): 871-85.
Merrill AH Jr. (2011). Sphingolipit and glycosphingolipit metabolic pathways in the era of sphingolipitomics. Chem Rev. 2011; 111(10): 6387-422.
Miller, J, Thompson, D, Carter, W. Androgen and Estrogen Pathways in Human Physiology, 2021; Berlin: Springer; 2021.
Mitchell, H, Scott, P. Steroids in Human Biology: Cholesterol and Beyond, 2020; New York: Academic Press; 2020.
Montrucchio G, Alloatti G, Camussi G. Role of platelet-activating factor in cardiovascular pathophysiology. Physiological Reviews. 2000; 80(4): 1669-99.
Nagan N, Zoeller RA. Plasmalogens: biosynthesis and functions. Progress in Lipit Research, 2001; 40(3): 199-229. doi: 10.1016/s0163-7827(01)00003-0. PMID: 11275267.
Nave KA, Werner HB. Myelination of the nervous system: mechanisms and functions. The Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology. 2014; 30:503-33.
Nelson, D. L, Cox, M. M. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (8th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Company. 2021.
Newton, A. C. Protein kinase C: perfectly balanced. Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2020; 55(3), 208-230.
Parra E, Pérez-Gil J. Composition, structure and mechanical properties define performance of pulmonary surfactant membranes and films. Chem Phys Lipits. 2015; 185:153-75.
Pfeiffer SE, Warrington AE, Bansal R. The oligodendrocyte and its many cellular processes. Trends in Cell Biology,1993; 3(6): 191-7. D
Prescott SM, Zimmerman GA, McIntyre TM. Platelet-activating factor. J Biol Chem. 1990; 265(29): 17381-4.
Rader DJ, Hovingh GK. HDL and cardiovascular disease. Lancet. 2014; 384(9943): 618-625.
Resh MD. Fatty acylation of proteins: The long and the short of it. Progress in Lipit Research. 2016; 63:120-31.
Rodriguez, C, Patel, S. Terpenes: Structure, Function, and Applications, Berlin: Springer; 2018.
Saher G, Simons M. Cholesterol and myelin biogenesis. Subcellular Biochemistry. 2010; 51:489-508. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-8622-8_18. PMID: 20213556.
Sandhoff R, Sandhoff K. Emerging concepts of ganglioside metabolism. FEBS Lett. 2018; 592(23): 3835-3864. doi: 10.1002/1873-3468.13114. Epub 2018 Jun 16. PMID: 29802621.
Schnaar RL. Glycosphingolipits in cell surface recognition. Glycobiology. 1991; 1(5): 477-85. doi: 10.1093/glycob/1.5.477. PMID: 1822229.
Schouten, S, Hopmans, E. C, Damsté, J. S. S. The organic geochemistry of glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether lipits: A review. Organic Geochemistry. 2013; 54, 19-61.
Sezgin E, Levental I, Mayor S, Eggeling C. The mystery of membrane organization: composition, regulation and roles of lipit rafts. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2017; 18(6): 361-374.
Simons K, Ikonen E. Functional rafts in cell membranes. Nature. 1997; 387(6633): 569-72.
Simons K, Ikonen E. How cells handle cholesterol. Science. 2000; 290(5497): 1721-6.
Smith, J, & Murphy, K. Arachidonic Acid Metabolism in Cellular Signaling, Berlin: Springer; 2017.
Sniderman AD, Thanassoulis G, Glavinovic T, Navar AM, Pencina M, Catapano A, Ference BA. Apolipoprotein B Particles and Cardiovascular Disease: A Narrative Review. JAMA Cardiology, 2019; 4(12): 1287-1295. doi: 10.1001/jamacardio.2019.3780.
Taylor, K, Morgan, S, Adams, R. Cholesterol: The Essential Molecule, Hoboken: Wiley; 2016.
van Meer G, Voelker DR, Feigenson GW. Membrane lipits: where they are and how they behave. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2008; 9(2): 112-24. doi: 10.1038/nrm2330.
Vance JE, Steenbergen R. Metabolism and functions of phosphatidylserine. Progress in Lipit Research. 2005; 44(4): 207-34. doi: 10.1016/j.plipres.2005.05.001. PMID: 15979148.
Vance JE, Tasseva G. Formation and function of phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine in mammalian cells. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013; 1831(3): 543-54.
Vance, D. E, Vance, J. E. Biochemistry of Lipits, Lipoproteins, and Membranes (5th ed.). Elsevier. 2008
Wallner S, Schmitz G. Plasmalogens the neglected regulatory and scavenging lipit species. Chem Phys Lipits. 2011; 164(6): 573-89.
White, N, Thompson, L. Cyclooxygenase Pathways in Health and Disease, Berlin: Springer; .
Williams, R, Clark, M. Endocrine Regulation of Steroid Hormones. Oxford, Oxford University Press; 2019.
Wilson, M, Carter, D. Local Hormones: Mechanisms and Functions, Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2020.
Yeats TH, Rose JK. The formation and function of plant cuticles. Plant Physiol. 2013; 163(1): 5-20.
Zhang T, de Waard AA, Wuhrer M, Spaapen RM. The Role of Glycosphingolipits in Immune Cell Functions. Front Immunol. 2019; 10:90.
Referanslar
Adams, R, Reed, B. Steroid Metabolism and Hormonal Regulation, London: Cambridge University Press; 2021.
Albers SV, Meyer B H. The archaeal cell envelope. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2011; 9(6): 414-426.
Alberts, B, Johnson, A, Lewis, J, Morgan, D, Raff, M, Roberts, K, Walter, P. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 2015; 6th edition. Garland Science.
Allen TM, Cullis PR. Liposomal drug delivery systems: from concept to clinical applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2013; 65(1): 36-48.
Anderson, R, Miller, G, Roberts, H. Prostaglandins and Their Clinical Applications, Hoboken: Wiley; 2021.
Balla T. Phosphoinositides: tiny lipits with giant impact on cell regulation. Physiol Rev. 2013; 93(3): 1019-137.
Bazan NG. Synaptic signaling by lipits in the life and death of neurons. Mol Neurobiol. 2005; 31(1-3): 219-30.
Bendelac A, Savage PB, Teyton L. The biology of NKT cells. Annu Rev Immunol. 2007; 25:297-336.
Berg, JM, Tymoczko, J.L, Gatto Jr, GJ, Stryer, L. Biochemistry. 2015; 8th Edition, W.H. Freeman & Company, New York, NY.
Bochkov VN, Oskolkova OV, Birukov KG, Levonen AL, Binder CJ, Stöckl J. Generation and biological activities of oxidized phospholipits. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2010; 12(8): 1009-59.
Brites P, Waterham HR, Wanders RJ. Functions and biosynthesis of plasmalogens in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2004; 1636(2-3): 219-31. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2003.12.010.
Brown DA, London E. Structure and function of sphingolipit- and cholesterol-rich membrane rafts. J Biol Chem. 2000; 275(23): 17221-4.
Brown, P, Johnson, L, Davis, R. Lipit Mediators and Their Roles in Inflammation, Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2018.
Chaurasia B, Summers SA. Ceramides in Metabolism: Key Lipotoxic Players. Annu Rev Physiol. 2021; 83:303-330. doi: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-031620-093815.
Chicco AJ, Sparagna GC. Role of cardiolipin alterations in mitochondrial dysfunction and disease. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2007; 292(1): C33-44.
Christie WW, Han X. Lipit Analysis: Isolation, Separation, Identification, and Lipitomic Analysis. 2010; 4th Edition. The Oily Press.
Dendrou CA, Fugger L, Friese MA. Immunopathology of multiple sclerosis. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2015; 15(9): 545-58.
Dennis EA, Norris PC. Eicosanoid storm in infection and inflammation. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2015; 15(8): 511-23.
Devaux PF. Static and dynamic lipit asymmetry in cell membranes. Biochemistry. 1991; 30(5): 1163-73.
Di Paolo G, De Camilli P. Phosphoinositides in cell regulation and membrane dynamics. Nature. 2006:12; 443(7112): 651-7.
Fahy E, Subramaniam S, Murphy RC, Nishijima M, Raetz CR, Shimizu T, Spener F, van Meer G, Wakelam MJ, Dennis EA. Update of the LIPIT MAPS comprehensive classification system for lipits. J Lipit Res. 2009; 50 Suppl(Suppl): S9-14. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R800095-JLR200.
Farooqui AA, Horrocks LA. Plasmalogens: workhorse lipits of membranes in normal and injured neurons and glia. Neuroscientist. 2001; 7(3): 232-45.
Favilla AB, Horning M, Costa DP. Advances in thermal physiology of diving marine mammals: The dual role of peripheral perfusion. Temperature (Austin). 2021; 9(1): 46-66.
Frayn KN. Adipose tissue as a buffer for daily lipit flux. Diabetologia. 2002; 45(9): 1201-10.
Fruman DA, Chiu H, Hopkins BD, Bagrodia S, Cantley LC, Abraham RT. The PI3K Pathway in Human Disease. Cell. 2017; 170(4): 605-635. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.07.029.
Garrett, RH, Grisham, CM. Biochemistry, 7th edition. Boston, USA: Cengage Publishing; 2023.
Ginsberg HN, Fisher EA. The ever-expanding role of degradation in the regulation of apolipoprotein B metabolism. J Lipit Res. 2009; 50 Suppl(Suppl): S162-6. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R800090-JLR200.
Gurr MI, Harwood JL, Frayn KN. Lipit Biochemistry: An Introduction (6th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell, 2016.
Hakomori S. Glycosphingolipits in cellular interaction, differentiation, and oncogenesis. Annu Rev Biochem. 1981; 50:733-64.
Han X, Gross RW. The foundations and development of lipitomics. Journal of Lipit Research. 2022; 63(2): 100164. doi: 10.1016/j.jlr.2021.100164.
Hannun YA, Obeid LM. Sphingolipits and their metabolism in physiology and disease. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 2018; 19(3): 175-191.
Harayama T, Riezman H. Understanding the diversity of membrane lipit composition. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2018; 19(5): 281-296.
Harris, D, Williams, B, Lee, M. Bioactive Terpenes in Natural Products Research. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2022.
Houtkooper RH, Vaz FM. Cardiolipin, the heart of mitochondrial metabolism. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 2008; 65(16): 2493-506.
Ishii S, Shimizu T. Platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor and genetically engineered PAF receptor mutant mice. Prog Lipit Res. 2000; 39(1): 41-82.
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) Guidelines
Jones, T, & Green, S. Eicosanoids and Their Biological Functions, New York: Academic Press; 2019.
Kathleen M. Botham, Peter A. Mayes. Chapter 21: Lipits of Physiologic Significance in: Kennelly P.J, Botham K.M, McGuinness O.P, Rodwell V.W, Weil P(Eds.), Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry, 32nd Edition. McGraw Hill Education.
Kharkwal SS, Arora P, Porcelli SA. Glycolipit activators of invariant NKT cells as vaccine adjuvants. Immunogenetics. 2016; 68(8): 597-610.
Kim HY, Huang BX, Spector AA. Phosphatidylserine in the brain: metabolism and function. Progress in Lipit Research. 2014; 56:1-18.
Kobayashi K, Endo K, Wada H. Roles of Lipits in Photosynthesis. Subcell Biochem. 2016; 86:21-49.
Koga Y, Morii H. Recent advances in structural research on ether lipits from archaea including comparative and physiological aspects. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 2005; 69(11): 2019-34. doi: 10.1271/bbb.69.2019. PMID: 16306681.
Köfeler HC, Ahrends R, Baker ES, Ekroos K, Han X, Hoffmann N, Holčapek M, Wenk MR, Liebisch G. Recommendations for good practice in MS-based lipitomics. Journal of Lipit Research. 2021; 62:100138.
Kritchevsky D. Diet and atherosclerosis. Am Heart J. 1999; 138(5 Pt 2): S426-30.
Li Z, Vance DE. (2008). Phosphatidylcholine and choline homeostasis. J Lipit Res. 2008; 49(6): 1187-94.
Lingwood D, Simons K. Lipit rafts as a membrane-organizing principle. Science. 2010; 327(5961): 46-50.
Lipitomics Standards Initiative Consortium. Lipitomics needs more standardization. Nature Metabolism. 2019; 1(8): 745-747.
Liu P, Zhu W, Chen C, Yan B, Zhu L, Chen X, Peng C. The mechanisms of lysophosphatidylcholine in the development of diseases. Life Sciences. 2020; 247, 117443.
Liwanag, H. E, Berta, A, Costa, D. P, Abney, M, & Williams, T. M. Morphological and thermal properties of mammalian insulation: the evolutionary transition to blubber in pinnipeds. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2012; 107:774-787.
Mahley RW, Huang Y. Apolipoprotein e sets the stage: response to injury triggers neuropathology. Neuron. 2012; 76(5): 871-85.
Merrill AH Jr. (2011). Sphingolipit and glycosphingolipit metabolic pathways in the era of sphingolipitomics. Chem Rev. 2011; 111(10): 6387-422.
Miller, J, Thompson, D, Carter, W. Androgen and Estrogen Pathways in Human Physiology, 2021; Berlin: Springer; 2021.
Mitchell, H, Scott, P. Steroids in Human Biology: Cholesterol and Beyond, 2020; New York: Academic Press; 2020.
Montrucchio G, Alloatti G, Camussi G. Role of platelet-activating factor in cardiovascular pathophysiology. Physiological Reviews. 2000; 80(4): 1669-99.
Nagan N, Zoeller RA. Plasmalogens: biosynthesis and functions. Progress in Lipit Research, 2001; 40(3): 199-229. doi: 10.1016/s0163-7827(01)00003-0. PMID: 11275267.
Nave KA, Werner HB. Myelination of the nervous system: mechanisms and functions. The Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology. 2014; 30:503-33.
Nelson, D. L, Cox, M. M. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (8th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Company. 2021.
Newton, A. C. Protein kinase C: perfectly balanced. Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2020; 55(3), 208-230.
Parra E, Pérez-Gil J. Composition, structure and mechanical properties define performance of pulmonary surfactant membranes and films. Chem Phys Lipits. 2015; 185:153-75.
Pfeiffer SE, Warrington AE, Bansal R. The oligodendrocyte and its many cellular processes. Trends in Cell Biology,1993; 3(6): 191-7. D
Prescott SM, Zimmerman GA, McIntyre TM. Platelet-activating factor. J Biol Chem. 1990; 265(29): 17381-4.
Rader DJ, Hovingh GK. HDL and cardiovascular disease. Lancet. 2014; 384(9943): 618-625.
Resh MD. Fatty acylation of proteins: The long and the short of it. Progress in Lipit Research. 2016; 63:120-31.
Rodriguez, C, Patel, S. Terpenes: Structure, Function, and Applications, Berlin: Springer; 2018.
Saher G, Simons M. Cholesterol and myelin biogenesis. Subcellular Biochemistry. 2010; 51:489-508. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-8622-8_18. PMID: 20213556.
Sandhoff R, Sandhoff K. Emerging concepts of ganglioside metabolism. FEBS Lett. 2018; 592(23): 3835-3864. doi: 10.1002/1873-3468.13114. Epub 2018 Jun 16. PMID: 29802621.
Schnaar RL. Glycosphingolipits in cell surface recognition. Glycobiology. 1991; 1(5): 477-85. doi: 10.1093/glycob/1.5.477. PMID: 1822229.
Schouten, S, Hopmans, E. C, Damsté, J. S. S. The organic geochemistry of glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether lipits: A review. Organic Geochemistry. 2013; 54, 19-61.
Sezgin E, Levental I, Mayor S, Eggeling C. The mystery of membrane organization: composition, regulation and roles of lipit rafts. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2017; 18(6): 361-374.
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