Çalışma Belleği ve Okuduğunu Anlama
Özet
Bu bölüm, çalışma belleği ile okuduğunu anlama arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektedir. Çalışma belleği, bilgiyi geçici olarak depolama ve işleme kapasitesiyle bilişsel süreçlerde kritik bir rol oynar. Özellikle metin anlama sürecinde, çalışma belleği, cümleler arası bağlantı kurma, zamir çözümleme ve tutarlı bir zihinsel model oluşturma gibi becerileri destekler. Araştırmalar, çalışma belleği kapasitesi yüksek bireylerin okuduğunu anlama performanslarının daha iyi olduğunu göstermektedir. Daneman ve Carpenter'ın "okuma aralığı" görevi gibi ölçümlerin sınırlılıklarına dikkat çekilmiştir. Bu görevler, hem depolama hem işleme gerektirse de, genel okuma becerilerinden etkilenebilir. Ayrıca, sözel çalışma belleği ile okuduğunu anlama arasındaki ilişkinin, uzamsal çalışma belleğine kıyasla daha güçlü olduğu vurgulanmıştır. Çocuklarda ve yetişkinlerde yapılan araştırmalar, çalışma belleği kapasitesinin yaşa bağlı değişimlerinin anlama becerisini etkilediğini ortaya koymaktadır. Okuduğunu anlamayı geliştirmek için izleme stratejileri, geri dönüşler, sözel prova ve görselleştirme gibi pratik etkinlik önerileri sunulmuştur. Bu stratejiler, özellikle çalışma belleği sınırlılığı olan öğrenciler için faydalıdır. Sonuç olarak, çalışma belleği ve okuduğunu anlama arasındaki güçlü bağ, eğitimsel müdahalelerle desteklenebilir ve bu becerilerin geliştirilmesi için önemli bir alan sunar.
Referanslar
Baddeley, A. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Baddeley, A., Logie, R., Nimmo-Smith, I. & Brereton N. (1985). Components of fluent reading, Journal of Memory and Language 24: 119–131.
Cain, K. (2006). Children’s reading comprehension: The role of working memory in normal and impaired development. In S. J. Pickering (Ed.), Working memory and education (pp. 61–91). Burlington, MA: Academic Press.
Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004). Children’s reading comprehension ability: Concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 31–42.
Cantor, J., Engle, R.W. & Hamilton, G. (1991). Short-term memory, working memory and verbal abilities: How do they relate?, Intelligence 15: 229–246.
Cohen, G. (1988). Age differences in memory for texts: Production deficiency or processing limitations? In L. Light & D. M. Burke (Eds.), Language, memory, and aging (pp. 171-190). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, G., & Faulkner, D. (1981). Memory for discourse in old age. Discourse Processes, 4, 253-265.
Cooke, A. E., Halleran, J. G., & O’Brien, E. J. (1998). What is readily available during reading? A memory-based view. Discourse Processes, 26, 109–129.
Craik, F. I. M. (1980). Age differences in memory: The roles of attention and depth of processing. InL. W. Poon, J. L. Fozard, L. S. Cermak, D. Arenberg, & L. W. Thompson (Eds.), New directions in memory and aging (pp. 95-112). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P.A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19: 450–466.
Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P.A. (1983). Individual differences in integrating information between and within sentences, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition 9: 561–584.
Daneman, M. & Tardif, T. (1987). Working memory and reading skill reexamined. In: M. Coltheart (ed.), Attention and performance, vol 12 (pp. 491–508). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Daneman, M., & Green, I. (1986). Individual differences in comprehending and producing words in context. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 1–18.
Daneman, M., & Merikle, P. M. (1996). Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 3, 422–433.
De Beni, R., & Palladino, P. (2000). Intrusion errors in working memory tasks: Are they related to reading comprehension ability. Learning and Individual Differences, 12, 131–145.
De Beni, R., Pazzaglia, F., Meneghetti, C., & Mondoloni, A. (2007). Working memory components and imagery instructions in the elaboration of a spatial mental model. Psychological Research, 71, 373–382.
Dixon, P., LeFevre, J., & Twilley, L. C. (1988). Word knowledge and working memory as predictors of reading skill. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 465–472.
Emery, O. B. (1985). Language and aging. Experimental Aging Research, 11, 3-60.
Engle, R. W., Carullo, J. J.,&Collins, K. W. (1991). Individual differences inworkingmemory for comprehension and following directions. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 253–262.
Engle, R.W., Cantor, J. & Carullo, J.J. (1992). Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18: 972–992.
Engle, R.W., Nations, J.K. & Cantor, J. (1990). Is ‘working memory capacity’ just another name for word knowledge?, Journal of Educational Psychology 82: 799–804.
Gernsbacher, M. A. (1990). Language comprehension as structure building. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Gick, M. L., Craik, F. I. M., & Morris, R. G. (1988). Task complexity and age differences in working memory. Memory and Cognition, 16, 353-361.
Goff, D. A., Pratt, C., & Ong, B. (2005). The relations between children’s reading comprehension, working memory, language skills and components of reading decoding in a normal sample. Reading and Writing, 18, 583–616.
Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., & Trabasso, T. (1994). Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension. Psychological Review, 101, 371–395.
Hannon, B., & Daneman, M. (2001). A new tool for measuring and understanding individual differences in the component processes of reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 103–128.
Hartley, J. T. (1986). Reader and text variables as determinants of discourse memory in adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 1, 150-158.
Hartley, J. T. (1988). Aging and individual differences in discourse memory. In L. Light & D. M. Burke (Eds.), Language, memory, and aging (PP- 36-57). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hasher, L., &Zacks, R. T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 22, pp. 193-226). New York: Academic.
Jensen, A. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory. Psychological Review, 99, 122–149.
Just, M.A. & Carpenter P.A. (1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory, Psychological Review 99: 122–149.
Kemper, S. (1986). Imitation of complex syntactic constructions by elderly adults. Applied Psycholinguistics, 7, 277-288.
Kemper, S. (1987). Syntactic complexity and elderly adults' prose recall. Experimental Aging Research, 13, 47-62.
Kemper, S., & Rash, S. (1988). Speech and writing across the life-span. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues (pp. 107-112). Chichester: Wiley.
Kintsch, W. (1988). The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A constructionintegration model, Psychological Review 95: 163–182.
Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kintsch, W., & vanDijk,T. A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 85, 363-393.
Kynette, D., Kemper, S., Norman, S., & Cheung, H. (1990). Adults' word recall and word recognition. Experimental Aging Research, 16, 117-121.
Leather, C. V.,&Henry, L. A. (1994). Workingmemory span andphonologicalawareness tasks as predictors of early reading ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 58, 88–111.
Light, L., & Anderson, P. A. (1985). Working memory capacity, age, and memory for discourse. Journal of Gerontology, 40, 1TI-1A1.
Light, L., & Burke, D. (1988). Patterns of language and memory in old age. In L. Light & D. M. Burke (Eds.), Language, memory, and aging (pp. 244-272). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Linderholm, T., & Van Den Broek, P. (2002). The effects of reading purpose and working memory capacity on the processing of expository text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 778–784.
Long, D. L., & Chong, J. L. (2001). Comprehension skill and global coherence: A paradoxical picture of poor comprehenders’ abilities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 1424–1429.
Marslen-Wilson, W.D. (1975). Sentence perception as an inte ractive process. Science, 189, 226 - 228.
Marslen-Wilson, W.D., & Welsh, A. (1978) . Processing interactions and lexical access during word recognition in continuous speech. Cognitive Psychology , 10, 29- 63.
Masson, M. E. J., & Miller, J. A. (1983). Working memory and individual differences in comprehension and memory of text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 314–318.
Morris, R. G., Gick, M. L., &Craik, F. I. M. (1988). Processing resources and age differences in working memory. Memory and Cognition, 16, 362-366.
Nation, K., Adams, J. W., Bowyer-Crane, C. A., & Snowling, M. J. (1999). Working memory deficits in poor comprehenders reflect underlying language impairments. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 73, 139–158.
Norman, S., Kemper, S., Kynette, D., Cheung, H., & Anagnopoulos, C. (1991). Syntactic complexity and adults' running memory span. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, P346-P351.
Oakhill, J. V., Cain, K., & Bryant, P. E. (2003). The dissociation of single-word reading and text comprehension: Evidence from component skills. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18, 443-468.
Oakhill, J. V., Yuill, N. M., & Parkin, A. (1986). On the nature of the difference between skilled and less-skilled comprehenders. Journal of Research in Reading, 9, 80–91.
Paris, S. G., Cross, D. R.,&Lipson, M. Y. (1984). Informed strategies for learning: A program to improve children’s reading awareness and comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 1239–1252.
Perlmutter, M., & Mitchell, D. B. (1982). The appearance and disappearance of age differences in adult memory. In F. I. M. Craik and S. Trehub (Eds.), Aging and cognitive processes (pp. 127-144). New York: Plenum.
Poon, L. W. (1985). Differences in human memory with aging: Nature, causes, and clinical implications. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (2nd ed., pp. 427-462). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Saarnio, D. A., Oka, E. R., & Paris, S. G. (1990). Developmental predictors of children’s reading comprehension. In T. H. Carr & B. A. Levy (Eds.), Reading and its development: Component skills approaches (pp. 57–79). New York: Academic Press.
Salthouse, T. A. (1991). Mediation of adult age differences in cognition by reductions in working memory and speed of processing. Psychological Science,2, 179-183.
Savage, R., Cornish, K., Manly, T., & Hollis, C. (2006). Cognitive processes in children’s reading and attention: The role of working memory, divided attention, and response inhibition. British Journal of Psychology, 97, 365–385.
Savage, R., Lavers, N., & Pillay, V. (2007). Working memory and reading difficulties: What we know and what we don’t know about the relationship. Educational Psychology Review 19, 185–221.
Seigneuric, A., & Ehrlich, M. (2005). Contribution of working memory capacity to children’s reading comprehension: A longitudinal investigation. Reading and Writing, 18, 617–656.
Seigneuric, A., Ehrlich, M.-F., Oakhill, J. V., & Yuill, N. M. (2000). Working memory resources and children’s reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 13, 81–103.
Shah, P.& Miyake, A. (1996). The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 125: 4–27.
Sternberg, R. J., & Powell, J. S. (1983). Comprehending verbal comprehension. American Psychologist, 38, 878–893.
Stine, E. A. L., & Wingfield, A. (1990). The assessment of qualitative age differences in discourse processing. In T. M. Hess (Ed.), Aging and cognition (pp. 33-92). New York: Elsevier.
Stine, E. A. L., & Wingfield, A. (1990). The assessment of qualitative age differences in discourse processing. In T. M. Hess (Ed.), Aging and cognition (pp. 33-92). New York: Elsevier.
Swanson, H. L. (1999b). Reading comprehension and working memory in learning-disabled readers: Is the phonological loop more important that the executive system? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 1–31.
Swanson, H. L., & Berninger, V. W. (1995). The role of working memory in skilled and less skilled readers’ comprehension. Intelligence, 21, 83–108.
Swanson, H. L., Howard, C. B., & Saez, L. (2006). Do different components of working memory underlie different subgroups of reading disabilities? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 252–269.
Turner, M.L. & Engle, R.W. (1989). Is working memory capacity task dependent?, Journal of Memory and Language 28: 127–154.
Tyler, L.K., & Mar slen± Wilson, W.D. (1977). The on-line effects of semantic context on syntactic processing. J ourna l of Verba l Lea rning a nd Verba l Beha vior, 16, 683 -692.
Waters, G., Caplan, D., & Hilderbrandt, N. (1987). Working memory and written sentence comprehension. In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and performance XII': The psychology of reading (pp. 531-555). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Yuill, N. M., Oakhill, J. V., & Parkin, A. J. (1989). Working memory, comprehension ability and the resolution of text anomaly. British Journal of Psychology, 80, 351–361.
Zelinski, E. M., &Gilewski, M. J. (1988). Memory for prose and aging. A meta-analysis. In M. L. Howe & C. J. Brainerd (Eds.), Cognitive development in adulthood (pp. 133-160). New York: Springer-Verlag.
