İklim Sistemi
Özet
Klimatoloji biliminin birbiriyle ilişkili fakat farklı anlamlar içeren kavramları; hava ve iklimdir. Hava, herhangi bir yerdeki anlık hava durumunu; iklim ise uzun yıllar boyunca görülen hava olaylarının ortalama durumunu, ekstrem değerlerini, tekrarlanma sıklıklarını ve istatistiksel analizlerini kapsayan bir kavramdır. İklim sistemini oluşturan bileşenler atmosfer (hava küre), litosfer (taş küre), hidrosfer (su küre), kriyosfer (buz küre) ve biyosfer (canlı küre)’dir. Bu sistemin güç kaynağı güneştir. İklim sistemi, kendi iç dinamiklerinin etkisi altında ve iklimi etkileyen dış faktörlerdeki değişiklikler nedeniyle zaman içinde gelişir. İklim sisteminin önemli bileşenlerinden birini oluşturan atmosferde temiz ve kuru havanın %99,9’unu; azot (N2) (%78.08), oksijen(O2) (%20.95) ve argon (Ar) (%78.08) meydana getirir. İz gazlar olarak su buharı, karbondioksit, metan, diazotmonooksit, ozon, neon, helyum, kripton, ksenon ve kloroflorokarbonlar (CFC) bulunur. Atmosferin yanı sıra litosfer, hidrosfer, kriyosfer ve biyosfer de iklim sistemini albedo oranları hissedilir ve gizli ısı değişmeleri, ısı transferleri, güneş radyasyonu ve enerji alışverişi gibi pek çok açıdan etkileyerek iklim değişikliklerine neden olmaktadır. Bu bölümde hava ve iklim kavramları, iklim sistemi ve temel özellikleri ile iklim sistemi bileşenleri konularına değinilmiştir. Konu başlıklarına göre iklim ve iklim sisteminin özellikleri, iklim sistemi bileşenleri ve dinamikleri bağlamında açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır.
Referanslar
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Khromova, T. E. (2010). Cryosphere and climate, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 13,1-8, 012002, doi:10.1088/1755-1315/13/1/012002.
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Kundzewicz, Z. W. (2008). Hydrosphere, Encyclopedia of Ecology, (pp1923–1930), doi:10.1016/b978-008045405-4.00740-0.
Le Treut, H., R. Somerville, U. Cubasch, Y. Ding, C. Mauritzen, A. Mokssit, T. Peterson & M. Prather, (2007). Historical overview of climate change in: Climate change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (Eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/ar4-wg1-chapter1.pdf, (Erişim tarihi:30.05.2024).
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Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuck, E. J. & Tasa, D. (2014). Genel jeoloji temel kavramlar, (Onbirinci basımdan çeviri), Cahit Helvacı (Çeviri ed.), Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara, ISBN: 978-605-133-433-2.
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Myhre, G., Myhre, C. E.L., Samset, B. H. & Storelvmo, T. (2013) Aerosols and their relation to global climate and climate sensitivity. Nature Education Knowledge 4(5):7, https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/aerosols-and-their-relation-to-global-climate-102215345/. (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Nisbet, E. G., Manning, M. R., Dlugokencky, E. J., Fisher, R. E., Lowry, D., Michel, S. E., vd., (2019). Very strong atmospheric methane growth in the 4 years 2014–2017: Implications for the Paris Agreement. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 33, 318–342, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GB006009.
Nişancı, A. (1990). Klimatoloji. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Yayınları, Yayın No:59, Samsun. ISBN: 975-7636-09-6.
Polarpedia (2024). Lithosphere, https://polarpedia.eu/en/lithosphere/, (Erişim tarihi:10.08.2024).
Rohli, R. V.& Vega, A. J. (2018). Climatology (Fourth edition), Burlington, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LCCN 2017010380, ISBN 9781284126563, https://dokumen.pub/qdownload/climatology-fourth-edition-9781284119985-128411998x-9781284126563-1284126560.html, (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Sabine, C. L. & Feely, R. A. (2015). Climate and climate change: Carbon dioxide, Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 2nd Edition, (Volume 2, pp.10–17). doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382225-3.00095-5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282566938_Climate_and_Climate_Change_Carbon_Dioxide. (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Schneider, T., O’Gorman, P. A. & Levine, X. J. (2010). Water vapor and the dynamics of climate changes, Reviews of Geophysics, 48,1-22, RG3001, Doi:10.1029/2009RG000302.
Skiba, U. M. & Rees, R. M. (2014). Nitrous oxide, climate change and agriculture, CAB Review, 9, 1-7, doi: 10.1079/PAVSNNR20149010.
T.C. Çevre, Şehircilik ve İklim Değişikliği Bakanlığı (2024a). Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü Son Durum https://www.mgm.gov.tr/sondurum/turkiye.aspx, (Erişim tarihi:20.07.2024).
T.C. Çevre, Şehircilik ve İklim Değişikliği Bakanlığı (2024b). Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü, Hidrometeoroloji, https://www.mgm.gov.tr/Genel/hidrometeoroloji.aspx?s=4, (Erişim tarihi:10.08.2024).
The Open University (2024). Open Learn, https://www.open.edu/openlearn/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=110022§ion=_unit2.3.3, (Erişim tarihi:10.08.2024).
Türkeş, M. (2010). Klimatoloji ve meteoroloji. Kriter Yayınevi, İstanbul. ISBN:978-605-5863-39-6.
World Meteorological Organization (2024). Global Cryosphere Watch, https://globalcryospherewatch.org/about/cryosphere.html, (Erişim tarihi:10.08.2024).
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Referanslar
Abayechaw, D. & Dikir, W. (2022). The ımpact of hydrosphere on climate change. Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(2),1-14, DOI: 10.23880/oajar-16000286.
Acar Deniz, Z. (2018). Genel klimatoloji. B. Gönençgil (Ed.), Genel fiziki coğrafya (s.203-258), Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara. ISBN:978-605-7928-54-2.
Ackerman, S. A. & Knox, J. A. (2015). Meteoroloji atmosferimizi anlamak (Üçüncü basımdan çeviri), Mikdat Kadıoğlu, Sedef Çakır (Çeviri ed.), Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara, ISBN: 978-605-320-209-7.
Baede, A. P. M., Ahlonsou, E., Ding, Y., & Schimel, D. S. (2001). The Climate System: An Overview. J. J. Maccarthy, O. F. Canziani, & N. A. Leary (Eds.), Climate change 2001: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability (pp. 87-98). New York: Cambridge University Press, https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/TAR-01.pdf, (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Barry, R. G. & Chorley. R. J. (2003). Atmosphere, weather and climate (Eighth edition), Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London, ISBN 0-203-42823-4 Master e-book ISBN. http://danida.vnu.edu.vn/cpis/files/Books/Atmosphere%20Weather%20and%20Climate%208th%20ed%20-%20R%20Barry%20R%20Chorley%20-%20Routledge%202003%20WW.pdf, (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Chapin, F. S., Matson, P. A., & Vitousek, P. M. (2011). Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology, Second edition, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-9503-2, doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9504-9_2, https://educons.edu.rs/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/2011-Principles-Of-Terrestrial-Ecosystem-Ecology.pdf, (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Cubasch, U., Wuebbles, D., Chen, D., Facchini, M. C., Frame, D., Mahowald, N. & Winther, J.- G. (2013). Introduction. in: Climate change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (Eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2017/09/WG1AR5_Chapter01_FINAL.pdf, (Erişim tarihi:10.06.2024).
Erlat, E. (2016). İklim sistemi ve iklim değişimleri (6. baskı), Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayın No.155, Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi, İzmir.
Erol, O. (2014). Genel klimatoloji (10. baskı), Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul, ISBN:975-7206-31-8, ISBN:978-975-7206-31-6.
Foley, J.A., Costa, M.H., Delire, C., Ramankutty, N. & Snyder. P. (2003b). Green surprise? How terrestrial ecosystems could affect Earth’s climate, Frontiers of Ecology and the Environment, 1(1),38–44.
Forster, P., Ramaswamy, V., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Betts, R., Fahey, D.W., Haywood, J., Lean, J., Lowe, D.C., Myhre, G., Nganga, J., Prinn, R., Raga, G., Schulz, M. & Van Dorland, R. (2007). Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing. in: Climate change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (Eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ar4-wg1-chapter2-1.pdf, (Erişim tarihi:30.05.2024).
Gettelman, A. & Rood, R. B. (2016). Demystifying climate models, Earth systems data and models 2, DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-48959-8_1, ISBN 978-3-662-48959-8. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/27950/1002049.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y, (Erişim tarihi:30.05.2024).
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Harris, S. A. (2002). Global heat budget, plate tectonics and climatic change, Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography, 84A (1), 1–9. doi:10.1111/j.0435-3676.2002.00157.x.
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IPCC (2007). IPCC fourth assessment report: Climate change 2007, https://web.archive.org/web/20191219023831/https://archive.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/annexessglossary-e-o.html, (Erişim tarihi:30.05.2024).
Jacob, D. (2001). The role of water vapour in the atmosphere. A short overview from a climate modeller’s point of view. physics and chemistry of the Earth, Part A: Solid Earth and Geodesy, 26(6-8), 523–527. doi:10.1016/s1464-1895(01)00094-1.
Karl, T. R. & Trenberth, K. E. (2003). Modern global climate change, Science, 302, 1719-1723, DOI: 10.1126/science.1090228.
Khromova, T. E. (2010). Cryosphere and climate, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 13,1-8, 012002, doi:10.1088/1755-1315/13/1/012002.
Koch, D., Menon, S., Genio, A. D., Ruedy, R., Alienov,I. & Schmidt, A. (2009). Distinguishing aerosol ımpacts on climate over the past century, Journal of Climate, 22(10), 2659-2677, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2573.1.
Kundzewicz, Z. W. (2008). Hydrosphere, Encyclopedia of Ecology, (pp1923–1930), doi:10.1016/b978-008045405-4.00740-0.
Le Treut, H., R. Somerville, U. Cubasch, Y. Ding, C. Mauritzen, A. Mokssit, T. Peterson & M. Prather, (2007). Historical overview of climate change in: Climate change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (Eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/ar4-wg1-chapter1.pdf, (Erişim tarihi:30.05.2024).
Lickley, M., Solomon, S., Fletcher, S., Velders, G.J.M., Daniel, J., Rigby, M., Montzka, S. A., Kuijpers, L.J.M. & Stone, K. (2020). Quantifying contributions of chlorofluorocarbon banks to emissions and ımpacts on the ozone layer and climate, Nature Communicatioıns, 11, 1380, 1-11, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15162-7.
Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuck, E. J. & Tasa, D. (2014). Genel jeoloji temel kavramlar, (Onbirinci basımdan çeviri), Cahit Helvacı (Çeviri ed.), Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara, ISBN: 978-605-133-433-2.
Mar, K. A, Unger, C., Walderdorff, L. &, Butler, T. (2022). Beyond CO2 equivalence: the impacts of methane on climate, Ecosystems, and Health, Environmental Science and Policy,134,127-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.03.027.
Mcguffie, K. & Henderson-Sellers, A. (2001). Forty years of numerical climate modelling, International Journal Of Climatology, 21, 1067–1109, DOI: 10.1002/joc.632.
Myhre, G., Myhre, C. E.L., Samset, B. H. & Storelvmo, T. (2013) Aerosols and their relation to global climate and climate sensitivity. Nature Education Knowledge 4(5):7, https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/aerosols-and-their-relation-to-global-climate-102215345/. (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Nisbet, E. G., Manning, M. R., Dlugokencky, E. J., Fisher, R. E., Lowry, D., Michel, S. E., vd., (2019). Very strong atmospheric methane growth in the 4 years 2014–2017: Implications for the Paris Agreement. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 33, 318–342, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GB006009.
Nişancı, A. (1990). Klimatoloji. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Yayınları, Yayın No:59, Samsun. ISBN: 975-7636-09-6.
Polarpedia (2024). Lithosphere, https://polarpedia.eu/en/lithosphere/, (Erişim tarihi:10.08.2024).
Rohli, R. V.& Vega, A. J. (2018). Climatology (Fourth edition), Burlington, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LCCN 2017010380, ISBN 9781284126563, https://dokumen.pub/qdownload/climatology-fourth-edition-9781284119985-128411998x-9781284126563-1284126560.html, (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Sabine, C. L. & Feely, R. A. (2015). Climate and climate change: Carbon dioxide, Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 2nd Edition, (Volume 2, pp.10–17). doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382225-3.00095-5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282566938_Climate_and_Climate_Change_Carbon_Dioxide. (Erişim tarihi:25.05.2024).
Schneider, T., O’Gorman, P. A. & Levine, X. J. (2010). Water vapor and the dynamics of climate changes, Reviews of Geophysics, 48,1-22, RG3001, Doi:10.1029/2009RG000302.
Skiba, U. M. & Rees, R. M. (2014). Nitrous oxide, climate change and agriculture, CAB Review, 9, 1-7, doi: 10.1079/PAVSNNR20149010.
T.C. Çevre, Şehircilik ve İklim Değişikliği Bakanlığı (2024a). Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü Son Durum https://www.mgm.gov.tr/sondurum/turkiye.aspx, (Erişim tarihi:20.07.2024).
T.C. Çevre, Şehircilik ve İklim Değişikliği Bakanlığı (2024b). Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü, Hidrometeoroloji, https://www.mgm.gov.tr/Genel/hidrometeoroloji.aspx?s=4, (Erişim tarihi:10.08.2024).
The Open University (2024). Open Learn, https://www.open.edu/openlearn/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=110022§ion=_unit2.3.3, (Erişim tarihi:10.08.2024).
Türkeş, M. (2010). Klimatoloji ve meteoroloji. Kriter Yayınevi, İstanbul. ISBN:978-605-5863-39-6.
World Meteorological Organization (2024). Global Cryosphere Watch, https://globalcryospherewatch.org/about/cryosphere.html, (Erişim tarihi:10.08.2024).
URL-1: https://tua.gov.tr/tr/blog/dunya/dunya-nin-atmosferi-ve-katmanlari, (Erişim tarihi: 10.08.2024).
URL-2: https://www.americanoceans.org/facts/what-is-thermohaline-circulation/, (Erişim tarihi: 29.08.2024).
