Parainfluenza Virüsü Enfeksiyonları
Özet
Paramiksovirüs ailesinden olan, parainfluenza virüsleri (PIV'ler), erişkinlerde ve çocuklarda solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarının önemli bir nedenidir. Paramyxoviridae ailesindeki Paramyxovirus cinsinde yer alan tek zincirli, zarflı RNA virüsleridir. İnsan PIV'lerinin dört ana serotipi (PIV-1, -2, -3 ve -4) tanımlanmıştır. Parainfluenza virüsler ilk olarak burun ve orofarinks epitelini enfekte eder ve buradan alt solunum yollarına doğru yayılabilir. PIV-1 ve PIV-2 çoğunlukla üst solunum yolu epitelinde çoğalarak üst solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarına ve krupa yol açmaktadır. PIV-3 ise alt solunum yollarında çoğalır; enfekte bronşiyolit ve pnömoniye sebep olabilir. Erişkinlerde en sık pnömoniye yol açan ve hastaneye yatış gerektiren serotip PIV-3’tür, genellikle ilkbahar sonu yaz başında insidansı artmaktadır. PIV genellikle damlacıkların veya fomitlerin solunmasıyla bulaşır. ÜSYE ve akut bronşit en yaygın görülen klinik tablolardır. PIV enfeksiyonunda spesifik mikrobiyolojik tanı hastalığın şiddetine ve hastanın immün durumuna bağlı değişmektedir. Hastaneye yatış gerektiren toplum kökenli pnömonilerde ve solunum yolu enfeksiyonu bulguları olan immünosüprese hastalarda diğer solunum yolu patojenleriyle birlikte PIV’in test edilmesi önerilmektedir. PIV enfeksiyonlarının tedavisi için onaylanmış, etkinliği kanıtlanmış antiviral ilaçlar şu anda mevcut değildir. Semptomlara yönelik destek tedavisi uygulanır. Günümüzde PIV enfeksiyonunu önlemek için lisanslı bir aşı yoktur, ancak aşı geliştirme çalışmaları devam etmektedir.
Parainfluenza viruses (PIVs), which belong to the paramyxovirus family, are significant causes of respiratory tract infections in both adults and children. Parainfluenza viruses initially infect the epithelial cells of the nose and oropharynx, from which they can spread to the lower respiratory tract. PIV-1 and PIV-2 primarily replicate in the upper respiratory tract epithelium, leading to upper respiratory tract infections and croup. In contrast, PIV-3 replicates in the lower respiratory tract and can cause bronchiolitis and pneumonia. The serotype most commonly associated with pneumonia and hospitalizations in adults is PIV-3, which typically shows an increase in incidence from late spring to early summer. Upper respiratory tract infections and acute bronchitis are the most commonly observed clinical presentations. The specific microbiological diagnosis of PIV infection varies depending on the severity of the disease and the patient's immune status. It is recommended to test for PIV along with other respiratory pathogens in cases of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization and in immunosuppressed patients presenting with respiratory infection symptoms. Currently, there are no approved antiviral medications with proven efficacy for the treatment of PIV infections. Supportive treatment is provided for the symptoms. Currently, there is no licensed vaccine to prevent PIV infections.
Referanslar
Hall CB. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus. N Engl J Med 2001; 344:1917.
Ison MG. Respiratory viral infections in transplant recipients. Antivir Ther 2007; 12:627.
Russell E, Ison MG. Parainfluenza Virus in the Hospitalized Adult. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 65:1570.
Karron RA, Collins PL. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Fields Virology, 5th ed, Knipe D, Howley P (Eds), Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia 2006. p.1497.
Piedra PA, Glezen WP. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza viruses. In: Clinical Virology, 2nd ed, Richman DD, Whitley RJ, Hayden FG (Eds), ASM Press, Washington, DC 2002. p.763.
Wright PF. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 6th ed, Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (Eds), Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia 2005. p.1998.
Henrickson KJ, Savatski LL. Genetic variation and evolution of human parainfluenza virus type 1 hemagglutinin neuraminidase: analysis of 12 clinical isolates. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:995–1005.
Fry AM, Curns AT, Harbour K, et al. Seasonal trends of human parainfluenza viral infections: United States, 1990-2004. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43:1016.
Castleman WL, Brundage-Anguish LJ, Kreitzer L, Neuenschwander SB. Pathogenesis of bronchiolitis and pneumonia induced in neonatal and weanling rats by parainfluenza (Sendai) virus. Am J Pathol 1987; 129:277.
Porter DD, Prince GA, Hemming VG, Porter HG. Pathogenesis of human parainfluenza virus 3 infection in two species of cotton rats: Sigmodon hispidus develops bronchiolitis, while Sigmodon fulviventer develops interstitial pneumonia. J Virol 1991; 65:103.
Prince GA, Porter DD. Treatment of parainfluenza virus type 3 bronchiolitis and pneumonia in a cotton rat model using topical antibody and glucocorticosteroid. J Infect Dis 1996; 173:598.
Pawełczyk M, Kowalski ML. The Role of Human Parainfluenza Virus Infections in the Immunopathology of the Respiratory Tract. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2017; 17:16.
Schaap-Nutt A, Liesman R, Bartlett EJ, et al. Human parainfluenza virus serotypes differ in their kinetics of replication and cytokine secretion in human tracheobronchial airway epithelium. Virology 2012; 433:320.
Einarsson O, Geba GP, Zhu Z, et al. Interleukin-11: stimulation in vivo and in vitro by respiratory viruses and induction of airways hyperresponsiveness. J Clin Invest 1996; 97:915.
Jacoby DB, Xiao HQ, Lee NH, et al. Virus- and interferon-induced loss of inhibitory M2 muscarinic receptor function and gene expression in cultured airway parasympathetic neurons. J Clin Invest 1998; 102:242.
Matsuse H, Kondo Y, Saeki S, et al. Naturally occurring parainfluenza virus 3 infection in adults induces mild exacerbation of asthma associated with increased sputum concentrations of cysteinyl leukotrienes. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2005; 138:267.
Aguayo-Hiraldo PI, Arasaratnam RJ, Tzannou I, et al. Characterizing the cellular immune response to parainfluenza virus 3. J Infect Dis. 2017;216:153–161.
Álvarez-Argüelles ME, Rojo-Alba S, Pérez Martínez Z, et al. New clinical and seasonal evidence of infections by Human Parainfluenzavirus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2018; 37:2211.
Russell E, Yang A, Tardrew S, Ison MG. Parainfluenza Virus in Hospitalized Adults: A 7-Year Retrospective Study. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 68:298.
Ison MG, Hirsch HH. Community-Acquired Respiratory Viruses in Transplant Patients: Diversity, Impact, Unmet Clinical Needs. Clin Microbiol Rev 2019; 32.
Jornist I, Muhsen K, Ram D, et al. Characterization of human parainfluenza virus-3 circulating in Israel, 2012-2015. J Clin Virol 2018; 107:19.
Falsey AR, Walsh EE. Viral pneumonia in older adults. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:518.
Wendt CH, Weisdorf DJ, Jordan MC, et al. Parainfluenza virus respiratory infection after bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:921.
Vilchez RA, Dauber J, McCurry K, et al. Parainfluenza virus infection in adult lung transplant recipients: an emergent clinical syndrome with implications on allograft function. Am J Transplant 2003; 3:116.
Herbst T, Van Deerlin VM, Miller WT Jr. The CT appearance of lower respiratory infection due to parainfluenza virus in adults. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2013; 201:550.
Kim MC, Kim MY, Lee HJ, et al. CT findings in viral lower respiratory tract infections caused by parainfluenza virus, influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95:e4003.
Hanada S, Pirzadeh M, Carver KY, Deng JC. Respiratory Viral Infection-Induced Microbiome Alterations and Secondary Bacterial Pneumonia. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2640.
Arisoy ES, Demmler GJ, Thakar S, Doerr C. Meningitis due to parainfluenza virus type 3: report of two cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17:995.
Wilks D, Burns SM. Myopericarditis associated with parainfluenza virus type 3 infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1998; 17:363.
Román G, Phillips CA, Poser CM. Parainfluenza virus type 3: isolation from CSF of a patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome. JAMA 1978; 240:1613.
Hansbro NG, Horvat JC, Wark PA, Hansbro PM. Understanding the mechanisms of viral induced asthma: new therapeutic directions. Pharmacol Ther 2008; 117:313.
Djamin RS, Uzun S, Snelders E, et al. Occurrence of virus-induced COPD exacerbations during four seasons. Infect Dis (Lond) 2015; 47:96.
Ison MG, Hirsch HH. Community-Acquired Respiratory Viruses in Transplant Patients: Diversity, Impact, Unmet Clinical Needs. Clin Microbiol Rev 2019; 32.
Miller JM, Binnicker MJ, Campbell S, et al. A Guide to Utilization of the Microbiology Laboratory for Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases: 2018 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Society for Microbiology. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67:813.
Sung RY, Chan PK, Choi KC, et al. Comparative study of nasopharyngeal aspirate and nasal swab specimens for diagnosis of acute viral respiratory infection. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46:3073.
Mahony JB. Detection of respiratory viruses by molecular methods. Clin Microbiol Rev 2008; 21:716.
Li PQ, Yang ZF, Chen JX, et al. Simultaneous detection of different respiratory virus by a multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction combined with flow-through reverse dot blotting assay. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 62:44.
Nichols WG, Corey L, Gooley T, et al. Parainfluenza virus infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: risk factors, response to antiviral therapy, and effect on transplant outcome. Blood 2001; 98:573.
Wright JJ, O'driscoll G. Treatment of parainfluenza virus 3 pneumonia in a cardiac transplant recipient with intravenous ribavirin and methylprednisolone. J Heart Lung Transplant 2005; 24:343.
Casey J, Morris K, Narayana M, et al. Oral ribavirin for treatment of respiratory syncitial virus and parainfluenza 3 virus infections post allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2013; 48:1558.
Waghmare A, Englund JA, Boeckh M. How I treat respiratory viral infections in the setting of intensive chemotherapy or hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood 2016; 127:2682.
Hirsch HH, Martino R, Ward KN, et al. Fourth European Conference on Infections in Leukaemia (ECIL-4): guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of human respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus, metapneumovirus, rhinovirus, and coronavirus. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56:258.
Moscona A, Porotto M, Palmer S, et al. A recombinant sialidase fusion protein effectively inhibits human parainfluenza viral infection in vitro and in vivo. J Infect Dis 2010; 202:234.
Guzmán-Suarez BB, Buckley MW, Gilmore ET, et al. Clinical potential of DAS181 for treatment of parainfluenza-3 infections in transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 2012; 14:427.
Drozd DR, Limaye AP, Moss RB, et al. DAS181 treatment of severe parainfluenza type 3 pneumonia in a lung transplant recipient. Transpl Infect Dis 2013; 15:E28.
Chemaly RF, Marty FM, Wolfe CR, et al. DAS181 Treatment of Severe Lower Respiratory Tract Parainfluenza Virus Infection in Immunocompromised Patients: A Phase 2 Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73:e773.
Jochmans D, van Nieuwkoop S, Smits SL, et al. Antiviral activity of favipiravir (T-705) against a broad range of paramyxoviruses in vitro and against human metapneumovirus in hamsters. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60:4620–4629.
Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, et al. 2007 Guideline for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in health care settings. Am J Infect Control. 2007;35(10 suppl 2):S65–S164.
Sung AD, Sung JAM, Thomas S, et al. Universal mask usage for reduction of respiratory viral infections after stem cell transplant: a prospective trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:999–1006.
Referanslar
Hall CB. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus. N Engl J Med 2001; 344:1917.
Ison MG. Respiratory viral infections in transplant recipients. Antivir Ther 2007; 12:627.
Russell E, Ison MG. Parainfluenza Virus in the Hospitalized Adult. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 65:1570.
Karron RA, Collins PL. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Fields Virology, 5th ed, Knipe D, Howley P (Eds), Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia 2006. p.1497.
Piedra PA, Glezen WP. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza viruses. In: Clinical Virology, 2nd ed, Richman DD, Whitley RJ, Hayden FG (Eds), ASM Press, Washington, DC 2002. p.763.
Wright PF. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 6th ed, Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (Eds), Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia 2005. p.1998.
Henrickson KJ, Savatski LL. Genetic variation and evolution of human parainfluenza virus type 1 hemagglutinin neuraminidase: analysis of 12 clinical isolates. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:995–1005.
Fry AM, Curns AT, Harbour K, et al. Seasonal trends of human parainfluenza viral infections: United States, 1990-2004. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43:1016.
Castleman WL, Brundage-Anguish LJ, Kreitzer L, Neuenschwander SB. Pathogenesis of bronchiolitis and pneumonia induced in neonatal and weanling rats by parainfluenza (Sendai) virus. Am J Pathol 1987; 129:277.
Porter DD, Prince GA, Hemming VG, Porter HG. Pathogenesis of human parainfluenza virus 3 infection in two species of cotton rats: Sigmodon hispidus develops bronchiolitis, while Sigmodon fulviventer develops interstitial pneumonia. J Virol 1991; 65:103.
Prince GA, Porter DD. Treatment of parainfluenza virus type 3 bronchiolitis and pneumonia in a cotton rat model using topical antibody and glucocorticosteroid. J Infect Dis 1996; 173:598.
Pawełczyk M, Kowalski ML. The Role of Human Parainfluenza Virus Infections in the Immunopathology of the Respiratory Tract. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2017; 17:16.
Schaap-Nutt A, Liesman R, Bartlett EJ, et al. Human parainfluenza virus serotypes differ in their kinetics of replication and cytokine secretion in human tracheobronchial airway epithelium. Virology 2012; 433:320.
Einarsson O, Geba GP, Zhu Z, et al. Interleukin-11: stimulation in vivo and in vitro by respiratory viruses and induction of airways hyperresponsiveness. J Clin Invest 1996; 97:915.
Jacoby DB, Xiao HQ, Lee NH, et al. Virus- and interferon-induced loss of inhibitory M2 muscarinic receptor function and gene expression in cultured airway parasympathetic neurons. J Clin Invest 1998; 102:242.
Matsuse H, Kondo Y, Saeki S, et al. Naturally occurring parainfluenza virus 3 infection in adults induces mild exacerbation of asthma associated with increased sputum concentrations of cysteinyl leukotrienes. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2005; 138:267.
Aguayo-Hiraldo PI, Arasaratnam RJ, Tzannou I, et al. Characterizing the cellular immune response to parainfluenza virus 3. J Infect Dis. 2017;216:153–161.
Álvarez-Argüelles ME, Rojo-Alba S, Pérez Martínez Z, et al. New clinical and seasonal evidence of infections by Human Parainfluenzavirus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2018; 37:2211.
Russell E, Yang A, Tardrew S, Ison MG. Parainfluenza Virus in Hospitalized Adults: A 7-Year Retrospective Study. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 68:298.
Ison MG, Hirsch HH. Community-Acquired Respiratory Viruses in Transplant Patients: Diversity, Impact, Unmet Clinical Needs. Clin Microbiol Rev 2019; 32.
Jornist I, Muhsen K, Ram D, et al. Characterization of human parainfluenza virus-3 circulating in Israel, 2012-2015. J Clin Virol 2018; 107:19.
Falsey AR, Walsh EE. Viral pneumonia in older adults. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:518.
Wendt CH, Weisdorf DJ, Jordan MC, et al. Parainfluenza virus respiratory infection after bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:921.
Vilchez RA, Dauber J, McCurry K, et al. Parainfluenza virus infection in adult lung transplant recipients: an emergent clinical syndrome with implications on allograft function. Am J Transplant 2003; 3:116.
Herbst T, Van Deerlin VM, Miller WT Jr. The CT appearance of lower respiratory infection due to parainfluenza virus in adults. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2013; 201:550.
Kim MC, Kim MY, Lee HJ, et al. CT findings in viral lower respiratory tract infections caused by parainfluenza virus, influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95:e4003.
Hanada S, Pirzadeh M, Carver KY, Deng JC. Respiratory Viral Infection-Induced Microbiome Alterations and Secondary Bacterial Pneumonia. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2640.
Arisoy ES, Demmler GJ, Thakar S, Doerr C. Meningitis due to parainfluenza virus type 3: report of two cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17:995.
Wilks D, Burns SM. Myopericarditis associated with parainfluenza virus type 3 infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1998; 17:363.
Román G, Phillips CA, Poser CM. Parainfluenza virus type 3: isolation from CSF of a patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome. JAMA 1978; 240:1613.
Hansbro NG, Horvat JC, Wark PA, Hansbro PM. Understanding the mechanisms of viral induced asthma: new therapeutic directions. Pharmacol Ther 2008; 117:313.
Djamin RS, Uzun S, Snelders E, et al. Occurrence of virus-induced COPD exacerbations during four seasons. Infect Dis (Lond) 2015; 47:96.
Ison MG, Hirsch HH. Community-Acquired Respiratory Viruses in Transplant Patients: Diversity, Impact, Unmet Clinical Needs. Clin Microbiol Rev 2019; 32.
Miller JM, Binnicker MJ, Campbell S, et al. A Guide to Utilization of the Microbiology Laboratory for Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases: 2018 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Society for Microbiology. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67:813.
Sung RY, Chan PK, Choi KC, et al. Comparative study of nasopharyngeal aspirate and nasal swab specimens for diagnosis of acute viral respiratory infection. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46:3073.
Mahony JB. Detection of respiratory viruses by molecular methods. Clin Microbiol Rev 2008; 21:716.
Li PQ, Yang ZF, Chen JX, et al. Simultaneous detection of different respiratory virus by a multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction combined with flow-through reverse dot blotting assay. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 62:44.
Nichols WG, Corey L, Gooley T, et al. Parainfluenza virus infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: risk factors, response to antiviral therapy, and effect on transplant outcome. Blood 2001; 98:573.
Wright JJ, O'driscoll G. Treatment of parainfluenza virus 3 pneumonia in a cardiac transplant recipient with intravenous ribavirin and methylprednisolone. J Heart Lung Transplant 2005; 24:343.
Casey J, Morris K, Narayana M, et al. Oral ribavirin for treatment of respiratory syncitial virus and parainfluenza 3 virus infections post allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2013; 48:1558.
Waghmare A, Englund JA, Boeckh M. How I treat respiratory viral infections in the setting of intensive chemotherapy or hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood 2016; 127:2682.
Hirsch HH, Martino R, Ward KN, et al. Fourth European Conference on Infections in Leukaemia (ECIL-4): guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of human respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus, metapneumovirus, rhinovirus, and coronavirus. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56:258.
Moscona A, Porotto M, Palmer S, et al. A recombinant sialidase fusion protein effectively inhibits human parainfluenza viral infection in vitro and in vivo. J Infect Dis 2010; 202:234.
Guzmán-Suarez BB, Buckley MW, Gilmore ET, et al. Clinical potential of DAS181 for treatment of parainfluenza-3 infections in transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 2012; 14:427.
Drozd DR, Limaye AP, Moss RB, et al. DAS181 treatment of severe parainfluenza type 3 pneumonia in a lung transplant recipient. Transpl Infect Dis 2013; 15:E28.
Chemaly RF, Marty FM, Wolfe CR, et al. DAS181 Treatment of Severe Lower Respiratory Tract Parainfluenza Virus Infection in Immunocompromised Patients: A Phase 2 Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73:e773.
Jochmans D, van Nieuwkoop S, Smits SL, et al. Antiviral activity of favipiravir (T-705) against a broad range of paramyxoviruses in vitro and against human metapneumovirus in hamsters. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60:4620–4629.
Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, et al. 2007 Guideline for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in health care settings. Am J Infect Control. 2007;35(10 suppl 2):S65–S164.
Sung AD, Sung JAM, Thomas S, et al. Universal mask usage for reduction of respiratory viral infections after stem cell transplant: a prospective trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:999–1006.
