Çocuk İşçilerde Sosyal Statünün Sağlıkla İlişkisini Anlamak
Özet
Dünyada ve Türkiye’de ailelerinin düşük sosyal statüsünü paylaşan çocuklar, erkenden iş dünyasına katılarak toplumsal etmenlerin yarattığı eşitsizliklerle mücadele etmek zorunda kalmaktadır. Yoksulluk, eğitimsizlik ve ümitsizlikle biriken stres etkisi, çocuk işçilerin sağlığını gençlikten yetişkinliğe dek tehdit etmektedir.
Bir asırdır önlemeye yönelik süregelen çabalara karşılık, çocuk işçiliği bir halk sağlığı sorunu olmaya devam etmekte; halen düşük sosyal statünün bir nesilden diğerine aktarılmasına aracılık etmektedir. Çocuk işçilerde düşük sosyal statünün nedenlerini ve sonuçlarını anlamada sosyo-ekolojik çerçeve; sosyal, yasal, ekonomik ve kültürel bağlamda sorunun değerlendirilmesine fırsat sunmaktadır. Sosyo-ekolojik çerçeve, bütüncül bir yaklaşımla çocuk işçilerde toplumsal etmenlerin getirdiği dezavantajların değiştirilebilmesinde en büyük sorumluluğun kamuya ait olduğunu göstermektedir. Son söz çocuk işçiliğinin her türünün sona erdirilmesi gereğidir.
Referanslar
World Health Organization. Operational framework for monitoring social determinants of health equity. 2024.
Mas-Sandoval A, Mathieson S, Fumagalli M. The genomic footprint of social stratification in admixing American populations. Elife. 2023;12:1–23.
Alegría M, A N, Falgas I, Wang Y, Alvarez K. Social determinants of mental health: Where we are and where we need to go. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;20(11):1–20.
Miyamoto Y. Culture and social class. Curr Opin Psychol. 2017;18:67–72.
Gowland RL, Caffell AC, Quade L, Levene A, Millard AR, Holst M, et al. The expendables: Bioarchaeological evidence for pauper apprentices in 19th century England and the health consequences of child labour. PLoS One. 2023;18(5 May):1–29.
Jayawardana D, Baryshnikova N V., Cheng TC. The long shadow of child labour on adolescent mental health: A quantile approach. Empir Econ. 2023;64(1):77–97.
Sharma NP, Dhakal S, Oliver A, Gupta S, Kumari V, Pandey R, et al. Threat biases associate with anxiety and depression in physically-abused young people with a history of child labour. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2022;77(September):101765.
ILO, UNICEF. COVID-19 and child labour: A time of crisis, a time to act [Internet]. COVID-19 and child labour: A time of crisis, a time to act. 2020. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/dominicanrepublic/comunicados-prensa/segun-la-oit-y-unicef-millones-de-ninos-podrian-verse-obligados-realizar-trabajo
Ran X, Huang T, Chen G. Subjective socioeconomic status, class Mobility and Health Disparities of older people. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(21):1–13.
Omorogiuwa TBE. Troubling childhood: The physical and health issues experienced by child labourers. Soc Work Public Health. 2020;35(8):679–88.
Bartoskova Polcrova A, Nieto-Martinez R, Mechanick JI, Maranhao Neto GA, Infante-Garcia MM, Pikhart H, et al. Comparison of social gradient in cardiometabolic health in Czechia and Venezuela: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2023;13(3):1–10.
Gnanapragasam SN, Astill Wright L, Pemberton M, Bhugra D. Outside/inside: Social determinants of mental health. Ir J Psychol Med. 2023;40(1):63–73.
Koski J, Xie H, Olson IR. Foundations of status perception. Soc Neurosci. 2015;10(5):527–50.
Şahin O, Nasır S. Objektif ve sübjektif sosyal statü arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. J Econ Cult Soc. 2019;59(1):185–98.
Ellis L, W. Hoskin A, Ratnasingam M. Conceptualizing and measuring social status. Handb Soc Status Correl. 2018;1–14.
Hopcroft R. Sociology:A Biosocial Introduction. 2nd ed. New York; 2018. 1–390 p.
Zelinska O, Gugushvili A, Bulczak G. Social mobility, health and wellbeing in Poland. Front Sociol. 2021;6(November):1–11.
Pförtner TK, Demirer I. How working conditions, socioeconomic insecurity, and behavior-related Factors mediate the association between working poverty and health in Germany. Int J Public Health. 2022;67(May):1–10.
Martin CL, Ghastine L, Lodge EK, Dhingra R, Ward-Caviness CK. Understanding health ınequalities through the lens of social epigenetics. Annu Rev Public Health. 2022;43:235–54.
Deichmann U. The social construction of the social epigenome and the larger biological context. Epigenetics and Chromatin. 2020;13(1):1–14.
Lacal I, Ventura R. Epigenetic Inheritance: Concepts, mechanisms and perspectives. Front Mol Neurosci. 2018;11(September):1–22.
Gugushvili A, Zelinska O, Präg P, Bulczak G. Does perceived social mobility affect health? Evidence from a fixed effects approach. Soc Sci Med. 2022;294(January).
Bulczak G, Gugushvili A. Downward income mobility among individuals with poor initial health is linked with higher cardiometabolic risk. PNAS Nexus. 2022;1(1):1–9.
Browman AS, Destin M, Kearney MS, Levine PB. How economic inequality shapes mobility expectations and behaviour in disadvantaged youth. Nat Hum Behav. 2019;3(3):214–20.
Tokuç B, Halil, Evren SM, Ekuklu G. Edirne ve Hayrabolu Mesleki Eğitim Merkezi öğrencilerinde umutsuzluk ve sürekli kaygı düzeyleri. 2009;8(2):155–60.
Deveci S. The level of hopelessness in the students of an occupational education center and affecting factors. Dicle Med J / Dicle Tip Derg. 2011;38(3):312–7.
Islam S, Jaffee SR. Social mobility and mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med. 2024;340(November 2023):116340.
Ornek OK, Esin MN. Psychological health problems among adolescent workers and associated factors in Istanbul, Turkey. Saf Health Work. 2018;9(1):101–8.
Ersü ve diğerleri KN ve diğerleri. Lisede eğitim gören gençler ile çıraklık eğitim merkezine devam eden gençlerin sağlık risk ve problemlerinin karşılaştırılması. Sted. 2015;24(3):237–44.
Yiğit Ü, Öncü E. Çalışan gençlerde sigara, alkol, uyuşturucu/ uayarıcı madde kulanımı ve risk faktörleri. Addicta. 2019;6(4):49–66.
Botan E, Yüksel A. Mersleki eğitim merkezine devam eden gençlerin sağlık, sosuyal, ekonomik durumları ve boyun eğici davranışlar açısından değerlendirilmesi. Turk J Public Heal. 2019;17(3):238–48.
Sevinç M, Aydoğdu M, Cançelik M, Binici T, Palabıçak M. Poverty, child labor, and hope: The Relationship between hope and perceived social support in children working in street markets in TRC2 Region. Children. 2020;7(78):1–16.
Sturrock S, Hodes M. Child labour in low- and middle-income countries and its consequences for mental health: a systematic literature review of epidemiologic studies. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;25(12):1273–86.
dos Santos DP, Alberto M de FP, da Costa RR, dos Santos CB. Child labour implications for adults: Experiences and childhood. Psicol e Soc. 2013;25:91–100.
Emerson PM, Souza AP. Is there a child labor trap? Intergenerational persistence of child labor in Brazil. Econ Dev Cult Change. 2003;51(2):375–98.
Kassouf AL, McKee M, Mossialos E. Early entrance to the job market and its effect on adult health: Evidence from Brazil. Health Policy Plan. 2001;16(1):21–8.
Liao M, Hong JS. Child labor in the people’s republic of China: An ecological systems analysis. Int Soc Work. 2011;54(4):565–79.
Omorogiuwa TBE. Troubling childhood: The physical and health issues experienced by child labourers. Soc Work Public Health. 2020;35(8):679–88.
Kaakinen J, Harmon Hanson S. Family health care nursing: Theory, practice, and research. In: Kaakinen J, Gedaly-Duff V, Padgett D, Harmon Hanson S, editors. Public Health. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Davis Company; 2010.
Karadoğan UC. “Çocuk ve çocukluk” kavramının tarihsel süreçte değerlendirilmesi. Çocuk ve Medeniyet 2019;4(7):195–226.
Beşoluk E, Parlak Z. Temel bi̇r çalışma standardı olarak geli̇şmekte olan ülkelerde çocuk işçiliği. Ekon Maliye İşletme Derg. 2022;5(1):54–67.
Hedges C, Ingleby E, Martin M. Children’s rights and child labour. Prism Cast New Light Learn Theory Pract. 2023;5(2):33–46.
Erdoğan R, Ertaş N. Van kentinde çocuk işgücünün mekansal analizi. Akad Sos Araştırmalar Derg. 2017;5(41):219–46.
UNICEF, ILO. Child-Labour-Report-1_24. 2021. 1–88 p.
International Labour Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund. COVID-19 and child labour: A time of crisis, a time to act [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/COVID-issue-paper-EN-1_4_2-FINAL.pdf
Erözyürek Gülcan A, Ural A. Türkiye’de çocuk işçiliği konusunda yapılan lisansüstü tezlerini ncelenmesi. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Derg. 2024;24(1):523–43.
TÜİK. Çalışan Çocuk İstati̇sti̇kleri̇ 2019. (10.05.2024 tarihinde https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Child-Labour-Force-Survey-2019-33807 adresinden ulaşılmıştır).
TÜİK. İstatistiklerle Çocuk, 2023. (10.05.2024 tarihinde https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Istatistiklerle-Cocuk-2023-53679#:~:text=T%C3%BCrkiye%20n%C3%BCfusunun%20%26%2C0'%C4%B1n%C4%B1%20%C3%A7ocuk%20n%C3%BCfus%20olu%C5%9Fturdu&text=%C3%87ocuk%20n%C3%BCfusun%20%51%2C3',y%C4%B1l%C4%B1nda%20%26%2C0%20oldu.adresinden ulaşılmıştır).
Abdullah A, Huynh I, Emery CR, Jordan LP. Social norms and family child labor: A systematic literature review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(7).
Batomen Kuimi BL, Oppong-Nkrumah O, Kaufman J, Nazif-Munoz JI, Nandi A. Child labour and health:A systematic review. Int J Public Health. 2018;63(5):663–72.
Doran KB. How does child labor affect the demand for adult labor? Evidence from rural Mexico. J Hum Resour. 2013;48(3):702–35.
Çöpoğlu M. Bir kısır döngü: Dünyada ve Türkiye’de çocuk işçiliği ve işsizlik. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sos Bilim Derg. 2018;6:671–84.
Mcewen CA, Mcewen BS. Social structure, adversity, toxic stress, and intergenerational poverty: An early childhood model. Annu Rev Sociol. 2017;43:445–72.
Macnaughton G, Frey D. Challenging neoliberalism: ILO, human rights, and public health frameworks on decent work. Health Hum Rights. 2018;20(2):43–56.
Yüceol HM. COVİD 19 Pandemi süreci sonrasında çocuk işçiliğinde genel durum ve politika önerileri. Mersin Üniversitesi Sos Bilim Enstitüsü Derg. 2022;5(2):40–53.
Ömer Aytaç, Pelin Kılınç. Emek sömürüsünün yeni yüzü. Fırat Üniversitesi Sos Bilim Derg. 2021;31(1):381–404.
Dayioglu M, Kirdar MG. Keeping kids in school and out of work: Compulsory schooling and child labor in Turkey. SSRN Electron J. 2020;(13276).
Aransiola TJ, Justus M. Child labor hazard on mental health: Evidence from Brazil. J Ment Health Policy Econ. 2018;21(2):49–58.
Referanslar
World Health Organization. Operational framework for monitoring social determinants of health equity. 2024.
Mas-Sandoval A, Mathieson S, Fumagalli M. The genomic footprint of social stratification in admixing American populations. Elife. 2023;12:1–23.
Alegría M, A N, Falgas I, Wang Y, Alvarez K. Social determinants of mental health: Where we are and where we need to go. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;20(11):1–20.
Miyamoto Y. Culture and social class. Curr Opin Psychol. 2017;18:67–72.
Gowland RL, Caffell AC, Quade L, Levene A, Millard AR, Holst M, et al. The expendables: Bioarchaeological evidence for pauper apprentices in 19th century England and the health consequences of child labour. PLoS One. 2023;18(5 May):1–29.
Jayawardana D, Baryshnikova N V., Cheng TC. The long shadow of child labour on adolescent mental health: A quantile approach. Empir Econ. 2023;64(1):77–97.
Sharma NP, Dhakal S, Oliver A, Gupta S, Kumari V, Pandey R, et al. Threat biases associate with anxiety and depression in physically-abused young people with a history of child labour. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2022;77(September):101765.
ILO, UNICEF. COVID-19 and child labour: A time of crisis, a time to act [Internet]. COVID-19 and child labour: A time of crisis, a time to act. 2020. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/dominicanrepublic/comunicados-prensa/segun-la-oit-y-unicef-millones-de-ninos-podrian-verse-obligados-realizar-trabajo
Ran X, Huang T, Chen G. Subjective socioeconomic status, class Mobility and Health Disparities of older people. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(21):1–13.
Omorogiuwa TBE. Troubling childhood: The physical and health issues experienced by child labourers. Soc Work Public Health. 2020;35(8):679–88.
Bartoskova Polcrova A, Nieto-Martinez R, Mechanick JI, Maranhao Neto GA, Infante-Garcia MM, Pikhart H, et al. Comparison of social gradient in cardiometabolic health in Czechia and Venezuela: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2023;13(3):1–10.
Gnanapragasam SN, Astill Wright L, Pemberton M, Bhugra D. Outside/inside: Social determinants of mental health. Ir J Psychol Med. 2023;40(1):63–73.
Koski J, Xie H, Olson IR. Foundations of status perception. Soc Neurosci. 2015;10(5):527–50.
Şahin O, Nasır S. Objektif ve sübjektif sosyal statü arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. J Econ Cult Soc. 2019;59(1):185–98.
Ellis L, W. Hoskin A, Ratnasingam M. Conceptualizing and measuring social status. Handb Soc Status Correl. 2018;1–14.
Hopcroft R. Sociology:A Biosocial Introduction. 2nd ed. New York; 2018. 1–390 p.
Zelinska O, Gugushvili A, Bulczak G. Social mobility, health and wellbeing in Poland. Front Sociol. 2021;6(November):1–11.
Pförtner TK, Demirer I. How working conditions, socioeconomic insecurity, and behavior-related Factors mediate the association between working poverty and health in Germany. Int J Public Health. 2022;67(May):1–10.
Martin CL, Ghastine L, Lodge EK, Dhingra R, Ward-Caviness CK. Understanding health ınequalities through the lens of social epigenetics. Annu Rev Public Health. 2022;43:235–54.
Deichmann U. The social construction of the social epigenome and the larger biological context. Epigenetics and Chromatin. 2020;13(1):1–14.
Lacal I, Ventura R. Epigenetic Inheritance: Concepts, mechanisms and perspectives. Front Mol Neurosci. 2018;11(September):1–22.
Gugushvili A, Zelinska O, Präg P, Bulczak G. Does perceived social mobility affect health? Evidence from a fixed effects approach. Soc Sci Med. 2022;294(January).
Bulczak G, Gugushvili A. Downward income mobility among individuals with poor initial health is linked with higher cardiometabolic risk. PNAS Nexus. 2022;1(1):1–9.
Browman AS, Destin M, Kearney MS, Levine PB. How economic inequality shapes mobility expectations and behaviour in disadvantaged youth. Nat Hum Behav. 2019;3(3):214–20.
Tokuç B, Halil, Evren SM, Ekuklu G. Edirne ve Hayrabolu Mesleki Eğitim Merkezi öğrencilerinde umutsuzluk ve sürekli kaygı düzeyleri. 2009;8(2):155–60.
Deveci S. The level of hopelessness in the students of an occupational education center and affecting factors. Dicle Med J / Dicle Tip Derg. 2011;38(3):312–7.
Islam S, Jaffee SR. Social mobility and mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med. 2024;340(November 2023):116340.
Ornek OK, Esin MN. Psychological health problems among adolescent workers and associated factors in Istanbul, Turkey. Saf Health Work. 2018;9(1):101–8.
Ersü ve diğerleri KN ve diğerleri. Lisede eğitim gören gençler ile çıraklık eğitim merkezine devam eden gençlerin sağlık risk ve problemlerinin karşılaştırılması. Sted. 2015;24(3):237–44.
Yiğit Ü, Öncü E. Çalışan gençlerde sigara, alkol, uyuşturucu/ uayarıcı madde kulanımı ve risk faktörleri. Addicta. 2019;6(4):49–66.
Botan E, Yüksel A. Mersleki eğitim merkezine devam eden gençlerin sağlık, sosuyal, ekonomik durumları ve boyun eğici davranışlar açısından değerlendirilmesi. Turk J Public Heal. 2019;17(3):238–48.
Sevinç M, Aydoğdu M, Cançelik M, Binici T, Palabıçak M. Poverty, child labor, and hope: The Relationship between hope and perceived social support in children working in street markets in TRC2 Region. Children. 2020;7(78):1–16.
Sturrock S, Hodes M. Child labour in low- and middle-income countries and its consequences for mental health: a systematic literature review of epidemiologic studies. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;25(12):1273–86.
dos Santos DP, Alberto M de FP, da Costa RR, dos Santos CB. Child labour implications for adults: Experiences and childhood. Psicol e Soc. 2013;25:91–100.
Emerson PM, Souza AP. Is there a child labor trap? Intergenerational persistence of child labor in Brazil. Econ Dev Cult Change. 2003;51(2):375–98.
Kassouf AL, McKee M, Mossialos E. Early entrance to the job market and its effect on adult health: Evidence from Brazil. Health Policy Plan. 2001;16(1):21–8.
Liao M, Hong JS. Child labor in the people’s republic of China: An ecological systems analysis. Int Soc Work. 2011;54(4):565–79.
Omorogiuwa TBE. Troubling childhood: The physical and health issues experienced by child labourers. Soc Work Public Health. 2020;35(8):679–88.
Kaakinen J, Harmon Hanson S. Family health care nursing: Theory, practice, and research. In: Kaakinen J, Gedaly-Duff V, Padgett D, Harmon Hanson S, editors. Public Health. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Davis Company; 2010.
Karadoğan UC. “Çocuk ve çocukluk” kavramının tarihsel süreçte değerlendirilmesi. Çocuk ve Medeniyet 2019;4(7):195–226.
Beşoluk E, Parlak Z. Temel bi̇r çalışma standardı olarak geli̇şmekte olan ülkelerde çocuk işçiliği. Ekon Maliye İşletme Derg. 2022;5(1):54–67.
Hedges C, Ingleby E, Martin M. Children’s rights and child labour. Prism Cast New Light Learn Theory Pract. 2023;5(2):33–46.
Erdoğan R, Ertaş N. Van kentinde çocuk işgücünün mekansal analizi. Akad Sos Araştırmalar Derg. 2017;5(41):219–46.
UNICEF, ILO. Child-Labour-Report-1_24. 2021. 1–88 p.
International Labour Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund. COVID-19 and child labour: A time of crisis, a time to act [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/COVID-issue-paper-EN-1_4_2-FINAL.pdf
Erözyürek Gülcan A, Ural A. Türkiye’de çocuk işçiliği konusunda yapılan lisansüstü tezlerini ncelenmesi. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Derg. 2024;24(1):523–43.
TÜİK. Çalışan Çocuk İstati̇sti̇kleri̇ 2019. (10.05.2024 tarihinde https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Child-Labour-Force-Survey-2019-33807 adresinden ulaşılmıştır).
TÜİK. İstatistiklerle Çocuk, 2023. (10.05.2024 tarihinde https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Istatistiklerle-Cocuk-2023-53679#:~:text=T%C3%BCrkiye%20n%C3%BCfusunun%20%26%2C0'%C4%B1n%C4%B1%20%C3%A7ocuk%20n%C3%BCfus%20olu%C5%9Fturdu&text=%C3%87ocuk%20n%C3%BCfusun%20%51%2C3',y%C4%B1l%C4%B1nda%20%26%2C0%20oldu.adresinden ulaşılmıştır).
Abdullah A, Huynh I, Emery CR, Jordan LP. Social norms and family child labor: A systematic literature review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(7).
Batomen Kuimi BL, Oppong-Nkrumah O, Kaufman J, Nazif-Munoz JI, Nandi A. Child labour and health:A systematic review. Int J Public Health. 2018;63(5):663–72.
Doran KB. How does child labor affect the demand for adult labor? Evidence from rural Mexico. J Hum Resour. 2013;48(3):702–35.
Çöpoğlu M. Bir kısır döngü: Dünyada ve Türkiye’de çocuk işçiliği ve işsizlik. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sos Bilim Derg. 2018;6:671–84.
Mcewen CA, Mcewen BS. Social structure, adversity, toxic stress, and intergenerational poverty: An early childhood model. Annu Rev Sociol. 2017;43:445–72.
Macnaughton G, Frey D. Challenging neoliberalism: ILO, human rights, and public health frameworks on decent work. Health Hum Rights. 2018;20(2):43–56.
Yüceol HM. COVİD 19 Pandemi süreci sonrasında çocuk işçiliğinde genel durum ve politika önerileri. Mersin Üniversitesi Sos Bilim Enstitüsü Derg. 2022;5(2):40–53.
Ömer Aytaç, Pelin Kılınç. Emek sömürüsünün yeni yüzü. Fırat Üniversitesi Sos Bilim Derg. 2021;31(1):381–404.
Dayioglu M, Kirdar MG. Keeping kids in school and out of work: Compulsory schooling and child labor in Turkey. SSRN Electron J. 2020;(13276).
Aransiola TJ, Justus M. Child labor hazard on mental health: Evidence from Brazil. J Ment Health Policy Econ. 2018;21(2):49–58.
