Cerrahi Hastasında Beslenme
Özet
Cerrahi travma şiddetine göre metabolik stres tepkisine ve inflamasyona yol açmaktadır. Hastaların beslenme tedavisine yönelik uygun planlamalar yapabilmek için, yaralanma sonucunda metabolizmada meydana gelen temel değişiklikleri ve bozulmuş beslenme durumunun postoperatif komplikasyonlar için ciddi bir risk faktörü olduğunu bilmek önemlidir. Cerrahi hastalarında beslenme desteği sağkalım üzerindeki olumlu etkilerinin yanında ameliyat sonrası derlenme süresini de kısalttığı için kritik önem taşımaktadır. Bu nedenle perioperatif bakımın temel unsurları arasında yer alan beslenme, genel sağlık yönetimine entegre edilmeli, ameliyat öncesi uzun süreli açlıktan kaçınılmalı, ameliyattan sonra beslenme mümkün olan en erken dönemde yeniden sağlanmalıdır. Yetersiz beslenme riski olduğunda zaman kaybetmeden mümkünse oral/enteral yolla beslenme tedavisi başlanmalı, beslenmenin oral/enteral beslenme yoluyla sağlanamadığı ya da yeterli olmadığı durumlarda parenteral beslenme tedavisine geçilmelidir. Erken dönemde beslenme tedavisi, cerrahi süreçte kan şekeri kontrolüne, cerrahi stresle ilişkili katabolizma şiddetinin azaltılmasına ve gastrointestinal sistem fonksiyonlarının işlevselliği açısından homeostazise katkıda bulunacaktır. Perioperatif dönemde cerrahi hemşiresi hastanın cerrahi süreçte ihtiyacı olan bakımı planlarken, bakım planına beslenme müdahalelerini de dahil etmeli, hastanın hastaneye ilk kabulünden itibaren beslenme değerlendirilmesi yapılmalı, ameliyat öncesi ve sonrası uzun süren açlık önlenmeli, nütrisyon destek ekibi ile iş birliği sağlanarak, sağlık kurumunun düzenlediği protokoller doğrultusunda ve hastaya uygun, bireysel nütrisyonel bakım ihtiyacı karşılanmalıdır. Bu çerçevede cerrahi hemşiresinin beslenme konusunda kanıt temelli güncel yaklaşımları takip etmeleri ve kanıta dayalı hemşirelik uygulamalarını bakımına yansıtmaları önemlidir.
Surgical trauma causes metabolic stress response and inflammation depending on its severity. To make appropriate plans for the nutritional treatment of patients, it is important to know the basic changes in metabolism that occur as a result of injury and that impaired nutritional status is a serious risk factor for postoperative complications. Nutritional support in surgical patients is of critical importance as it not only has positive effects on survival but also shortens postoperative recovery time. For this reason, nutrition, which is among the basic elements of perioperative care, should be integrated into general health management, long-term fasting should be avoided before surgery, and nutrition should be restored as early as possible after surgery. When there is a risk of malnutrition, oral/enteral nutrition treatment should be started without wasting time, if possible, and parenteral nutrition treatment should be started in cases where nutrition cannot be provided through oral/enteral nutrition or is not sufficient. Early nutritional therapy will contribute to blood sugar control during the surgical process, reducing the severity of catabolism associated with surgical stress, and homeostasis in terms of the functionality of gastrointestinal system functions. In the perioperative period, when the surgical nurse is planning the care the patient needs during the surgical process, nutritional interventions should be included in the care plan, nutritional evaluation should be made from the first admission of the patient to the hospital, long-term hunger before and after surgery should be prevented, cooperation with the nutrition support team should be ensured, and protocols organized by the health institution should be followed. Individual nutritional care needs should be met in line with and appropriate to the patient. In this context, it is important for surgical nurses to follow current evidence-based approaches to nutrition and reflect evidence-based practices into patient care.
Referanslar
Cederholm T, Barazzoni R, Austin P, et al. ESPEN guidelines on definitions and terminology of clinical nutrition. Clinical nutrition. 2017;36(1):49-64. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2016.09.004
Wischmeyer PE, Carli F, Evans DC, et al. American society for enhanced recovery and perioperative quality initiative joint consensus statement on nutrition screening and therapy within a surgical enhanced recovery pathway. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 2018;126(6):1883-95. DOI: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000002743
Weimann A, Braga M, Carli F, et al. ESPEN guideline: clinical nutrition in surgery. Clinical nutrition. 2017;36(3):623-50. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.02.013
Gündoğu RH. Current approach to perioperative nutrition in the ERAS age. Clinical Science of Nutrition. 2019;1(1):1-10. DOI: 10.5152/ClinSciNutr.2019.79
Dölek EK, Erden S. Cerrahi Süreçte Hasta Beslenmesinde Güncel Yaklaşımlar. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi.18(1):183-90. DOI: 10.17517/ksutfd.1034634
Ljungqvist O, Fearon KC. Nutritional Support in the Perioperative Period Topic 17. 2015.
Mithany RH, Daniel N, Shahid MH, et al. Revolutionizing surgical care: the power of enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS). Cureus. 2023;15(11). DOI: 10.7759/cureus.48795
Snow J. Fatal application of chloroform. Lancet. 1848;1:161-2.
Lobo DN, Gianotti L, Adiamah A, et al. Perioperative nutrition: Recommendations from the ESPEN expert group. Clinical nutrition. 2020;39(11):3211-27. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.03.038
Svanfeldt M, Thorell A, Hausel J, et al. Effect of “preoperative” oral carbohydrate treatment on insulin action—a randomised cross-over unblinded study in healthy subjects. Clinical nutrition. 2005;24(5):815-21. DOI: 10.4097/kja.d.18.27143
Smith MD, McCall J, Plank L, et al. Preoperative carbohydrate treatment for enhancing recovery after elective surgery. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014(8).
Sobotka L, Soeters P. Metabolic response to injury and sepsis. Basics in clinical nutrition 3th ed Czech Republic: Galen. 2004:57-134.
Corbett SA. chapter Systemic Response to Injury and Metabolic Support. Schwartz's Principles of Surgery. 2014:13.
Şimşek T, Şimşek HU, Cantürk NZ. Travmaya cevap ve metabolik değişiklikler: posttravmatik metabolizma. Turkish Journal of Surgery. 2014;30(3):153-9.
Hinton P, Littlejohn S, Allison S, et al. Insulin and glucose to reduce catabolic response to injury in burned patients. The Lancet. 1971;297(7703):767-9.
Brandi L, Frediani M, Oleggini M, et al. Insulin resistance after surgery: normalization by insulin treatment. Clinical Science. 1990;79(5):443-50. DOI: 10.1042/cs0790443
Gustafsson U, Thorell A, Soop M, et al. Haemoglobin A1c as a predictor of postoperative hyperglycaemia and complications after major colorectal surgery. Journal of British Surgery. 2009;96(11):1358-64. DOI: 10.1002/bjs.6724.
McClave SA, Taylor BE, Martindale RG, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN). Journal of parenteral and enteral nutrition. 2016;40(2):159-211. DOI: 10.1177/0148607115621863
Valla FV, Uberti T, Henry C, et al. Perioperative nutritional assessment and support in visceral surgery. Journal of Visceral Surgery. 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.jviscsurg.2023.06.008
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Guigoz Y, Lauque S, Vellas BJ. Identifying the elderly at risk for malnutrition: The Mini Nutritional Assessment. Clinics in geriatric medicine. 2002;18(4):737-57. DOI: 10.1016/s0749-0690(02)00059-9.
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Sobotka L, Forbes A. Basics in clinical nutrition: Galen; 2019.
Meier R, Berner Y, Sobotka L. Nutritional Assessment and Techniques Topic 3. 2017.
Reber E, Gomes F, Vasiloglou MF, et al. Nutritional risk screening and assessment. Journal of clinical medicine. 2019;8(7):1065. DOI: 10.3390/jcm8071065
Kyle UG, Bosaeus I, De Lorenzo AD, Deurenberg P, Elia M, Gómez JM, et al. Bioelectrical impedance analysis—part II: utilization in clinical practice. Clinical nutrition. 2004;23(6):1430-53. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2004.09.012.
Esper DH. Utilization of nutrition‐focused physical assessment in identifying micronutrient deficiencies. Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 2015;30(2):194-202. DOI: 10.1177/0884533615573054.
Weimann A, Braga M, Carli F, et al. ESPEN practical guideline: Clinical nutrition in surgery. Clinical Nutrition. 2021;40(7):4745-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2021.03.031
Norman K, Stobäus N, Gonzalez MC, et al. Hand grip strength: outcome predictor and marker of nutritional status. Clinical nutrition. 2011;30(2):135-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2010.09.010
Gillis C, Wischmeyer P. Pre‐operative nutrition and the elective surgical patient: why, how and what? Anaesthesia. 2019;74:27-35. DOI: 10.1111/anae.14506
White JV, Guenter P, Jensen G, et al. Consensus statement of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics/American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: characteristics recommended for the identification and documentation of adult malnutrition (undernutrition). Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012;112(5):730-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jand.2012.03.012
Lambert JE, Hayes LD, Keegan TJ, et al. The impact of prehabilitation on patient outcomes in hepatobiliary, colorectal, and upper gastrointestinal cancer surgery: a PRISMA-accordant meta-analysis. Annals of surgery. 2021;274(1):70-7. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000004527
Awad S, Varadhan KK, Ljungqvist O, et al. A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on preoperative oral carbohydrate treatment in elective surgery. Clinical nutrition. 2013;32(1):34-44. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2012.10.011
Amer M, Smith M, Herbison G, et al. Network meta-analysis of the effect of preoperative carbohydrate loading on recovery after elective surgery. Journal of British Surgery. 2017;104(3):187-97. DOI: 10.1002/bjs.10408
Gianotti L, Biffi R, Sandini M, et al. Preoperative oral carbohydrate load versus placebo in major elective abdominal surgery (PROCY): a randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter, phase III trial. LWW; 2018. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000002325
Hughes MJ, Hackney RJ, Lamb PJ, Wigmore SJ, Christopher Deans D, Skipworth RJ. Prehabilitation before major abdominal surgery: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. World journal of surgery. 2019;43(7):1661-8. DOI: 10.1007/s00268-019-04950-y
López JMM, León MP, Unzueta MTG, et al. Perioperative nutritional support. Cirugía Española (English Edition). 2014;92(6):379-86. DOI: 10.1016/j.ciresp.2013.12.014
Gustafsson U, Scott M, Hubner M, et al. Guidelines for perioperative care in elective colorectal surgery: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS®) Society recommendations: 2018. World journal of surgery. 2019;43:659-95. DOI: 10.1007/s00268-018-4844-y
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Doğanay M, Akçay K, Çil T, et al. KEPAN enteral Beslenme (EB) rehberi. Clinical Science of Nutrition. 2023;5:1-29. DOI: 10.5152/ClinSciNutr.2023.23061
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Szary NM, Arif M, Matteson ML, Choudhary A, Puli SR, Bechtold ML. Enteral feeding within three hours after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy placement: a meta-analysis. Journal of clinical gastroenterology. 2011;45(4):e34-e8.DOI: 10.1097/MCG.0b013e3181eeb732
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da Silva JS, Seres DS, Sabino K, et al. ASPEN consensus recommendations for refeeding syndrome. Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 2020;35(2):178-95. DOI: 10.1002/ncp.10474
Akçay K, Ayhan H, Çakır KB, et al. Beslenme tedavisi alan hastalarda hipfosfatemiye neden olan faktörler. Turk J Intensive Care. 2022;20:72-8. DOI: 10.4274/tybd.galenos.2021.42103
Wang Z, Ding W, Fang Q, et al. Effects of not monitoring gastric residual volume in intensive care patients: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2019;91:86-93. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.11.005
Ohashi Y, Walker J, Zhang F, et al. Preoperative gastric residual volumes in fasted patients measured by bedside ultrasound: a prospective observational study. Anaesthesia and intensive care. 2018;46(6):608-13. DOI: 10.1177/0310057X1804600612
Blaser AR, Deane AM, Fruhwald S. Diarrhoea in the critically ill. Current opinion in critical care. 2015;21(2):142-53. DOI: 10.1097/MCC.0000000000000188
Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN, Carter R. Human water needs. Nutrition reviews. 2005;63(suppl_1):S30-S9. DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2005.tb00152.x
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Referanslar
Cederholm T, Barazzoni R, Austin P, et al. ESPEN guidelines on definitions and terminology of clinical nutrition. Clinical nutrition. 2017;36(1):49-64. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2016.09.004
Wischmeyer PE, Carli F, Evans DC, et al. American society for enhanced recovery and perioperative quality initiative joint consensus statement on nutrition screening and therapy within a surgical enhanced recovery pathway. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 2018;126(6):1883-95. DOI: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000002743
Weimann A, Braga M, Carli F, et al. ESPEN guideline: clinical nutrition in surgery. Clinical nutrition. 2017;36(3):623-50. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.02.013
Gündoğu RH. Current approach to perioperative nutrition in the ERAS age. Clinical Science of Nutrition. 2019;1(1):1-10. DOI: 10.5152/ClinSciNutr.2019.79
Dölek EK, Erden S. Cerrahi Süreçte Hasta Beslenmesinde Güncel Yaklaşımlar. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi.18(1):183-90. DOI: 10.17517/ksutfd.1034634
Ljungqvist O, Fearon KC. Nutritional Support in the Perioperative Period Topic 17. 2015.
Mithany RH, Daniel N, Shahid MH, et al. Revolutionizing surgical care: the power of enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS). Cureus. 2023;15(11). DOI: 10.7759/cureus.48795
Snow J. Fatal application of chloroform. Lancet. 1848;1:161-2.
Lobo DN, Gianotti L, Adiamah A, et al. Perioperative nutrition: Recommendations from the ESPEN expert group. Clinical nutrition. 2020;39(11):3211-27. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.03.038
Svanfeldt M, Thorell A, Hausel J, et al. Effect of “preoperative” oral carbohydrate treatment on insulin action—a randomised cross-over unblinded study in healthy subjects. Clinical nutrition. 2005;24(5):815-21. DOI: 10.4097/kja.d.18.27143
Smith MD, McCall J, Plank L, et al. Preoperative carbohydrate treatment for enhancing recovery after elective surgery. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014(8).
Sobotka L, Soeters P. Metabolic response to injury and sepsis. Basics in clinical nutrition 3th ed Czech Republic: Galen. 2004:57-134.
Corbett SA. chapter Systemic Response to Injury and Metabolic Support. Schwartz's Principles of Surgery. 2014:13.
Şimşek T, Şimşek HU, Cantürk NZ. Travmaya cevap ve metabolik değişiklikler: posttravmatik metabolizma. Turkish Journal of Surgery. 2014;30(3):153-9.
Hinton P, Littlejohn S, Allison S, et al. Insulin and glucose to reduce catabolic response to injury in burned patients. The Lancet. 1971;297(7703):767-9.
Brandi L, Frediani M, Oleggini M, et al. Insulin resistance after surgery: normalization by insulin treatment. Clinical Science. 1990;79(5):443-50. DOI: 10.1042/cs0790443
Gustafsson U, Thorell A, Soop M, et al. Haemoglobin A1c as a predictor of postoperative hyperglycaemia and complications after major colorectal surgery. Journal of British Surgery. 2009;96(11):1358-64. DOI: 10.1002/bjs.6724.
McClave SA, Taylor BE, Martindale RG, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN). Journal of parenteral and enteral nutrition. 2016;40(2):159-211. DOI: 10.1177/0148607115621863
Valla FV, Uberti T, Henry C, et al. Perioperative nutritional assessment and support in visceral surgery. Journal of Visceral Surgery. 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.jviscsurg.2023.06.008
Singer P, Blaser AR, Berger MM, et al. ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in the intensive care unit. Clinical nutrition. 2019;38(1):48-79. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2018.08.037
Pirlich M, Schütz T, Norman K, et al. The German hospital malnutrition study. Clinical nutrition. 2006;25(4):563-72. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2006.03.005
Stratton RJ, Hackston A, Longmore D, et al. Malnutrition in hospital outpatients and inpatients: prevalence, concurrent validity and ease of use of the ‘malnutrition universal screening tool’(‘MUST’) for adults. British Journal of Nutrition. 2004;92(5):799-808. DOI: 10.1079/bjn20041258.
Guigoz Y, Lauque S, Vellas BJ. Identifying the elderly at risk for malnutrition: The Mini Nutritional Assessment. Clinics in geriatric medicine. 2002;18(4):737-57. DOI: 10.1016/s0749-0690(02)00059-9.
Kondrup J, Rasmussen HH, Hamberg O, et al. Nutritional risk screening (NRS 2002): a new method based on an analysis of controlled clinical trials. Clinical nutrition. 2003;22(3):321-36. DOI: 10.1016/s0261-5614(02)00214-5.
Sobotka L, Forbes A. Basics in clinical nutrition: Galen; 2019.
Meier R, Berner Y, Sobotka L. Nutritional Assessment and Techniques Topic 3. 2017.
Reber E, Gomes F, Vasiloglou MF, et al. Nutritional risk screening and assessment. Journal of clinical medicine. 2019;8(7):1065. DOI: 10.3390/jcm8071065
Kyle UG, Bosaeus I, De Lorenzo AD, Deurenberg P, Elia M, Gómez JM, et al. Bioelectrical impedance analysis—part II: utilization in clinical practice. Clinical nutrition. 2004;23(6):1430-53. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2004.09.012.
Esper DH. Utilization of nutrition‐focused physical assessment in identifying micronutrient deficiencies. Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 2015;30(2):194-202. DOI: 10.1177/0884533615573054.
Weimann A, Braga M, Carli F, et al. ESPEN practical guideline: Clinical nutrition in surgery. Clinical Nutrition. 2021;40(7):4745-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2021.03.031
Norman K, Stobäus N, Gonzalez MC, et al. Hand grip strength: outcome predictor and marker of nutritional status. Clinical nutrition. 2011;30(2):135-42. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2010.09.010
Gillis C, Wischmeyer P. Pre‐operative nutrition and the elective surgical patient: why, how and what? Anaesthesia. 2019;74:27-35. DOI: 10.1111/anae.14506
White JV, Guenter P, Jensen G, et al. Consensus statement of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics/American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: characteristics recommended for the identification and documentation of adult malnutrition (undernutrition). Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012;112(5):730-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jand.2012.03.012
Lambert JE, Hayes LD, Keegan TJ, et al. The impact of prehabilitation on patient outcomes in hepatobiliary, colorectal, and upper gastrointestinal cancer surgery: a PRISMA-accordant meta-analysis. Annals of surgery. 2021;274(1):70-7. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000004527
Awad S, Varadhan KK, Ljungqvist O, et al. A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on preoperative oral carbohydrate treatment in elective surgery. Clinical nutrition. 2013;32(1):34-44. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2012.10.011
Amer M, Smith M, Herbison G, et al. Network meta-analysis of the effect of preoperative carbohydrate loading on recovery after elective surgery. Journal of British Surgery. 2017;104(3):187-97. DOI: 10.1002/bjs.10408
Gianotti L, Biffi R, Sandini M, et al. Preoperative oral carbohydrate load versus placebo in major elective abdominal surgery (PROCY): a randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter, phase III trial. LWW; 2018. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000002325
Hughes MJ, Hackney RJ, Lamb PJ, Wigmore SJ, Christopher Deans D, Skipworth RJ. Prehabilitation before major abdominal surgery: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. World journal of surgery. 2019;43(7):1661-8. DOI: 10.1007/s00268-019-04950-y
López JMM, León MP, Unzueta MTG, et al. Perioperative nutritional support. Cirugía Española (English Edition). 2014;92(6):379-86. DOI: 10.1016/j.ciresp.2013.12.014
Gustafsson U, Scott M, Hubner M, et al. Guidelines for perioperative care in elective colorectal surgery: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS®) Society recommendations: 2018. World journal of surgery. 2019;43:659-95. DOI: 10.1007/s00268-018-4844-y
Herbert G, Perry R, Andersen HK, et al. Early enteral nutrition within 24 hours of lower gastrointestinal surgery versus later commencement for length of hospital stay and postoperative complications. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019(7). DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004080.pub4
Doğanay M, Akçay K, Çil T, et al. KEPAN enteral Beslenme (EB) rehberi. Clinical Science of Nutrition. 2023;5:1-29. DOI: 10.5152/ClinSciNutr.2023.23061
Ockenga J, Mitte KB. Approach to Oral and Enteral Nutrition in Adults Topic 8. 2020.
Szary NM, Arif M, Matteson ML, Choudhary A, Puli SR, Bechtold ML. Enteral feeding within three hours after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy placement: a meta-analysis. Journal of clinical gastroenterology. 2011;45(4):e34-e8.DOI: 10.1097/MCG.0b013e3181eeb732
Pirlich M, Poulia K-A, de van der Schueren M, et al. Approach to Oral and Enteral Nutrition in Adults Topic 8. 2020.
Bischoff SC, Austin P, Boeykens K, et al. ESPEN guideline on home enteral nutrition. Clinical nutrition. 2020;39(1):5-22.DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2019.04.022
Akçay K, Suluhan D, Kesik G, et al. Nursing practices in enteral nutrition. Clinical Science of Nutrition. 2020;2(1):1-14. DOI: 10.5152/ClinSciNutr.2020.984
Loser C, Wolters S, Folsch U. Enteral long-term nutrition via percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) in 210 patients a four-year prospective study. Digestive diseases and sciences. 1998;43:2549-57. DOI: 10.1023/a:1026615106348
da Silva JS, Seres DS, Sabino K, et al. ASPEN consensus recommendations for refeeding syndrome. Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 2020;35(2):178-95. DOI: 10.1002/ncp.10474
Akçay K, Ayhan H, Çakır KB, et al. Beslenme tedavisi alan hastalarda hipfosfatemiye neden olan faktörler. Turk J Intensive Care. 2022;20:72-8. DOI: 10.4274/tybd.galenos.2021.42103
Wang Z, Ding W, Fang Q, et al. Effects of not monitoring gastric residual volume in intensive care patients: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2019;91:86-93. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.11.005
Ohashi Y, Walker J, Zhang F, et al. Preoperative gastric residual volumes in fasted patients measured by bedside ultrasound: a prospective observational study. Anaesthesia and intensive care. 2018;46(6):608-13. DOI: 10.1177/0310057X1804600612
Blaser AR, Deane AM, Fruhwald S. Diarrhoea in the critically ill. Current opinion in critical care. 2015;21(2):142-53. DOI: 10.1097/MCC.0000000000000188
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