Candida auris’ in Antifungal Duyarlılığı
Özet
Candida auris, çoklu ilaç direnci özellikleri nedeniyle özellikle hastane ortamlarında ciddi enfeksiyonlara yol açabilir. Flukonazol, amfoterisin B ve ekinokandinler gibi antifungal ilaçlara karşı direnç oranları yüksektir. Bu durum, C. auris enfeksiyonlarının tedavisinde ciddi zorluklar yaratmaktadır. CDC, C. auris'in antifungal duyarlılık testlerinin mutlaka yapılmasını önermektedir. Tedavisinde ilk seçenek olarak ekinokandinler önerilmektedir. Ancak, ekinokandin direncinin gelişmesi durumunda lipozomal amfoterisin B ikinci seçenek olarak kullanılabilir. C. auris izolatlarının antifungal direnç profilleri, dünya genelinde farklılık gösterebilir. Tedavisinde mutlaka bu durum göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır. C. auris 'in antifungal direnç mekanizmalarının anlaşılması, bu patojenin tedavi edilmesinde kritik öneme sahiptir. Genelde azol ve amfoterisin B direnci, ergosterol biyosentezi ile ilgili genlerdeki mutasyonlardan kaynaklanırken, ekinokandinlere direnç, β-13-glukan sentaz enzimiyle ilgili genlerdeki mutasyonlardan kaynaklanmaktadır. Efluks pompaları, antifungal ilaçların hücre dışına pompalanmasını sağlayarak dirence katkıda bulunur. C. auris'in antifungal direnci, bu patojenin tedavisini zorlaştırmaktadır. Bu nedenle, C. auris enfeksiyonlarının önlenmesi ve tedavisi için bu konuda daha fazla araştırma yapılması gerekmektedir.
Candida auris can cause serious infections, especially in hospital settings, due to its multidrug resistance properties. Resistance rates to antifungal drugs such as fluconazole, amphotericin B and echinocandins are high. This poses serious challenges in the treatment of C. auris infections. CDC recommends antifungal susceptibility testing of C. auris. Echinocandins are recommended as the first line of treatment. However, in case of development of echinocandin resistance, liposomal amphotericin B can be used as a second option. Antifungal resistance profiles of C. auris isolates may vary worldwide. This should be taken into consideration in treatment. Understanding the antifungal resistance mechanisms of C. auris is critical in the treatment of this pathogen. In general, azole and amphotericin B resistance is due to mutations in genes related to ergosterol biosynthesis, while resistance to echinocandins is due to mutations in genes related to the β-1,3-glucan synthase enzyme. Efflux pumps contribute to resistance by allowing antifungal drugs to be pumped out of the cell. Antifungal resistance of C. auris complicates the treatment of this pathogen. Therefore, further research is needed to prevent and treat C. auris infections.
Referanslar
Bhattacharya S, Sae-Tia S, Fries BC. Candidiasis and mechanisms of antifungal resistance. Antibiotics. 2020; 9 (6): 312. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9060312
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Drug-resistant Candida species. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/antimicrobial-resistance/media/pdfs/candida-508.pdf?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/pdf/threats-report/candida-508.pdf (Accessed: 09/June/2024)
Lyman M, Forsberg K, Reuben J, et al. Notes from the field: transmission of pan-resistant and echinocandin-resistant Candida auris in health care facilities-Texas and the district of Columbia, January-April 2021. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2021; 70: 1022-23 doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7029a2
Lyman M, Forsberg K, Sexton DJ, et al. Worsening Spread of Candida auris in the United States, 2019 to 2021. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2023; 176 (4): 489-495. doi:10.7326/M22-3469
Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, et al. Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017; 64 (2): 134-140. doi: 10.1093/cid/ ciw691 PMID: 27988485.
Chowdhary A, Anil Kumar V, Sharma C, et al. Multidrug-resistant endemic clonal strain of Candida auris in India. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 2014; 33 (6): 919-926.doi: 10.1007/s10096-013-2027-1.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention treatment and management of C. auris infections and colonization. Candida auris. Fungal Diseases. CDC. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/candida-auris/c-auris-treatment.html (accessed on 09 May 2024).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention antifungal susceptibility testing and interpretation. Candida auris. Fungal Diseases. CDC. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/candida-auris/c-auris-antifungal.html (accessed on 09 May 2024)
Emara M, Ahmad S, Khan Z, et al. Candida auris candidemia in Kuwait, 2014. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2015; 21: 1091-1092. doi:10.3201/eid2106.150270.
Magobo RE, Corcoran C, Seetharam S. Candida auris-associated candidemia, South Africa. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2014; 20: 1250-1251. doi: 10.3201/eid2007.131765.
Schelenz S, Hagen F, Rhodes JL, et al. First hospital outbreak of the globally emerging Candida auris in a European hospital. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control 2016; 5: 35. doi: 10.1186/s13756-016-0132-5.
Kathuria S, Singh PK, Sharma C, et al. Multidrug-resistant Candida auris misidentified as Candida haemulonii: characterization by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry and DNA sequencing and its antifungal susceptibility profile variability by Vitek 2, CLSI broth microdilution, and Etest method. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2015; 53: 1823-1830. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00367-15.
Lee WG, Shin JH, Uh Y, et al. First three reported cases of nosocomial fungemia caused by Candida auris. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2011; 49: 3139-3142. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00319-11.
Vallabhaneni S, Kallen A,Tsay S, et al. Investigation of the first seven reported cases of Candida auris, a globally emerging invasive, multidrug-resistant fungus United States, May 2013-August 2016. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65: 1234-1237. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6544e1.
Sharma C, Singh A, Singh PK, et al. Genotyping of multidrug resistant Indian Candida auris isolates by multi locus sequence typing, amplified fragment length polymorphism and MALDI-TOF-MS and their antifungal susceptibility profile. Mycoses 2015; 58: 119-120. doi: 10.1111/myc.12284.
Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S et al. Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017; 64: 134-140. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw691
Arendrup MC, Prakash A, Meletiadis J, et al. Comparison of EUCAST and CLSI reference microdilution MICs of eight antifungal compounds for Candida auris and associated tentative epidemiological cutoff values. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 2017; 61 (6): e00485-17. doi:10.1128/AAC.00485-17
Kean R, Brown J, Gulmez D, Ware A, Ramage G. Candida auris: A decade of understanding of an enigmatic pathogenic yeast. Journal of Fungi (Basel). 2020; 6 (1): 30. doi:10.3390/jof6010030
Kaitlin Forsberg, Kate Woodworth, Maroya Walters, et al. Candida auris: The recent emergence of a multidrug-resistant fungal pathogen, Medical Mycology, 2019; 57 (1): 1-12. doi: 10.1093/mmy/myy054
Spivak ES, Hanson KE. Candida auris: an emerging fungal pathogen. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2018; 56 (2). doi: 10.1128/JCM.01588-17
Hata DJ, Humphries R, Lockhart SR, College of American Pathologists Microbiology Committee. Candida auris: an emerging yeast pathogen posing distinct challenges for laboratory diagnostics, treatment, and infection prevention. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. 2020; 144 (1): 107-114. doi:10.5858/arpa.2018-0508-RA
Du H, Bing J, Hu T, et al. Candida auris: Epidemiology, biology, antifungal resistance, and virulence. PLoS Pathogens. 2020; 16 (10): e1008921. doi: 10.1371/ journal.ppat.1008921
Bing J, Hu T, Zheng Q, et al. Experimental evolution Identifies Adaptive aneuploidy as a mechanism of fluconazole resistance in Candida auris. Antimicrobial Agents of Chemotherapy. 2020; 65: e01466. doi:10.1128/AAC.01466-20
Chow NA, Munoz JF, Gade L, et al. Tracing the evolutionary history and global expansion of Candida auris using population genomic analyses. mBio. 2020; 11: e03364. doi:10.1128/mBio.03364-19
Jenull S, Tscherner M, Kashko N, et al. Transcriptome signatures predict phenotypic variations of Candida auris. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2021; 11: 662563. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.662563
Munoz JF, Welsh RM, Shea T, et al. Clade-specific chromosomal rearrangements and loss of subtelomeric adhesins in Candida auris. Genetics. 2021; 218: iyab029. doi:10.1093/genetics/iyab029
Veen M, Stahl U, Lang C. Combined overexpression of genes of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway leads to accumulation of sterols in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Yeast Research. 2003; 4 (1): 87-95. doi:10.1016/S1567-1356(03)00126-0
Bhattacharya S, Esquivel BD, White TC. Overexpression or deletion of ergosterol biosynthesis genes alters doubling time, response to stress agents, and drug susceptibility in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. mBio. 2018; 9: 10.1128/mbio.01291.18. doi:10.1128/mbio.01291-18].
Delattin N, Cammue BP, Thevissen K. Reactive oxygen species-inducing antifungal agents and their activity against fungal biofilms. Future Medicinal Chemistry. 2014; 6 (1): 77-90. doi:10.4155/fmc.13.189
Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, et al. Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017; 64 (2): 134–140. doi: 10.1093/cid/ ciw691
Chowdhary A, Prakash A, Sharma C, et al. A multicentre study of antifungal susceptibility patterns among 350 Candida auris isolates (2009–17) in India: role of the ERG11 and FKS1 genes in azole and echinocandin resistance. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2018; 73: 891-99. doi:10.1093/jac/dkx480
Munoz JF, Gade L, Chow NA, et al. Genomic insights into multidrug- resistance, mating and virulence in Candida auris and related emerging species. Nature Communications. 2018; 9: 5346. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07779-6
Chow NA, Muñoz JF, Gade L, et al. Tracing the evolutionary history and global expansion of Candida auris using population genomic analyses. mBio. 2020; 11 (2): e03364-19. doi:10.1128/mBio.03364-19
Morschhäuser J, Barker KS, Liu TT, et al. The transcription factor Mrr1p controls expression of the MDR1 efflux pump and mediates multidrug resistance in Candida albicans. PLoS Pathogens. 2017; 3: e164. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0030164
Sharma, C., Kumar, N., Pandey, R., et al. Whole genome sequencing of emerging multidrug resistant Candida auris isolates in India demonstrates low genetic variation. New Microbes and New Infections. 2016; 13: 77-82. doi: 10.1016/j.nmni.2016.07.003
Rybak JM, Doorley LA, Nishimoto AT, et al. Abrogation of triazole resistance upon deletion of CDR1 in a clinical isolate of Candida auris. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2019; 63: e00057-19. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00057-19.
Chowdhary A, Jain K, Chauhan N. Candida auris genetics and emergence. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2023; 77: 583-602. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-032521-015858
Frías-De-León MG, Hernández-Castro R, Vite-Garín T, et al. Antifungal resistance in Candida auris: Molecular determinants. Antibiotics (Basel). 2020; 9 (9): 568. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9090568
Hull CM, Bader O, Parker JE, et al. Two clinical isolates of Candida glabrata exhibiting reduced sensitivity to amphotericin B both harbor mutations in ERG2. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2012; 56: 6417-21. doi:10.1128/AAC.01145-12
Escandón P, Chow NA, Caceres DH, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Candida auris in Colombia reveals a highly related, countrywide colonization with regional patterns in Amphotericin B resistance. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2019; 68: 15-21. doi:10.1093/cid/ciy411
Rybak JM, Barker KS, Munoz JF, et al. In vivo emergence of high-level resistance during treatment reveals the first identified mechanism of amphotericin B resistance in Candida auris. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2022; 28: 838-43. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2021.11.024
Ostrowsky B, Greenko J, Adams E, et al. Candida auris ısolates resistant to three classes of antifungal medications New York, 2019. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2020; 69: 6-9. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6901a2
Osei Sekyere, J. Candida auris: A systematic review and meta-analysis of current updates on an emerging multidrug-resistant pathogen. Miocrobiology Open 2018; 7: e00578. doi:10.1002/mbo3.578
Arendrup, M.C.; Patterson, T.F. Multidrug-Resistant Candida: epidemiology, molecular mechanisms, and treatment. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2017; 216 (Suppl. 3): S445-S451. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix131
Perlin DS. Echinocandin resistance in Candida. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2015; 61 (Suppl. 6): S612–17. doi:10.1093/cid/civ791
Bidaud AL, Chowdhary A, Dannaoui E. Candida auris: An emerging drug resistant yeast - A mini-review. Journal of Medical Mycology. 2018; 28 (3): 568-573. doi:10.1016/j.mycmed.2018.06.007
Kordalewska M, Lee A, Park S, et al. Understanding echinocandin resistance in the emerging pathogen Candida auris. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2018; 62 (6): e00238-18. doi:10.1128/AAC.00238-18
Rhodes J, Abdolrasouli A, Farrer RA, et al. Genomic epidemiology of the UK outbreak of the emerging human fungal pathogen Candida auris. Emerging Microbes & Infections. 2018; 7: 43. doi: 10.1101/201343
Vandeputte P, Ferrari S, Coste AT. Antifungal resistance and new strategies to control fungal infections. International Journal of Microbiology. 2012: 713687. doi: 10.1155/2012/713687
Chaabane F, Graf A, Jequier L, et al. Review on antifungal resistance mechanisms in the emerging pathogen Candida auris. Frontiers Microbiology. 2019; 10: 2788. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.02788
Romera D, Aguilera-Correa JJ, Gadea I, et al. Candida auris: a comparison between planktonic and biofilm susceptibility to antifungal drugs. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2019; 68 (9): 1353-1358. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.001036
Jeffery-Smith A, Taori SK, Schelenz S, et al. Candida auris: a review of the literature. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2017; 31 (1): e00029-17. doi:10.1128/CMR.00029-17
De Groot PW, Bader O, De Boer AD, et al. Adhesins in human fungal pathogens: glue with plenty of stick. Eukaryotic Cell. 2013; 12: 470-81. doi:10.1128/EC.00364-12
Kean R, Delaney C, Sherry L, et al. Transcriptome assembly and profiling of Candida auris reveals novel insights into biofilm-mediated resistance. mSphere 2018; 3: e00334. doi:10.1128/mSphere.00334-18
Referanslar
Bhattacharya S, Sae-Tia S, Fries BC. Candidiasis and mechanisms of antifungal resistance. Antibiotics. 2020; 9 (6): 312. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9060312
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Drug-resistant Candida species. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/antimicrobial-resistance/media/pdfs/candida-508.pdf?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/pdf/threats-report/candida-508.pdf (Accessed: 09/June/2024)
Lyman M, Forsberg K, Reuben J, et al. Notes from the field: transmission of pan-resistant and echinocandin-resistant Candida auris in health care facilities-Texas and the district of Columbia, January-April 2021. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2021; 70: 1022-23 doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7029a2
Lyman M, Forsberg K, Sexton DJ, et al. Worsening Spread of Candida auris in the United States, 2019 to 2021. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2023; 176 (4): 489-495. doi:10.7326/M22-3469
Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, et al. Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017; 64 (2): 134-140. doi: 10.1093/cid/ ciw691 PMID: 27988485.
Chowdhary A, Anil Kumar V, Sharma C, et al. Multidrug-resistant endemic clonal strain of Candida auris in India. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 2014; 33 (6): 919-926.doi: 10.1007/s10096-013-2027-1.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention treatment and management of C. auris infections and colonization. Candida auris. Fungal Diseases. CDC. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/candida-auris/c-auris-treatment.html (accessed on 09 May 2024).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention antifungal susceptibility testing and interpretation. Candida auris. Fungal Diseases. CDC. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/candida-auris/c-auris-antifungal.html (accessed on 09 May 2024)
Emara M, Ahmad S, Khan Z, et al. Candida auris candidemia in Kuwait, 2014. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2015; 21: 1091-1092. doi:10.3201/eid2106.150270.
Magobo RE, Corcoran C, Seetharam S. Candida auris-associated candidemia, South Africa. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2014; 20: 1250-1251. doi: 10.3201/eid2007.131765.
Schelenz S, Hagen F, Rhodes JL, et al. First hospital outbreak of the globally emerging Candida auris in a European hospital. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control 2016; 5: 35. doi: 10.1186/s13756-016-0132-5.
Kathuria S, Singh PK, Sharma C, et al. Multidrug-resistant Candida auris misidentified as Candida haemulonii: characterization by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry and DNA sequencing and its antifungal susceptibility profile variability by Vitek 2, CLSI broth microdilution, and Etest method. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2015; 53: 1823-1830. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00367-15.
Lee WG, Shin JH, Uh Y, et al. First three reported cases of nosocomial fungemia caused by Candida auris. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2011; 49: 3139-3142. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00319-11.
Vallabhaneni S, Kallen A,Tsay S, et al. Investigation of the first seven reported cases of Candida auris, a globally emerging invasive, multidrug-resistant fungus United States, May 2013-August 2016. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65: 1234-1237. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6544e1.
Sharma C, Singh A, Singh PK, et al. Genotyping of multidrug resistant Indian Candida auris isolates by multi locus sequence typing, amplified fragment length polymorphism and MALDI-TOF-MS and their antifungal susceptibility profile. Mycoses 2015; 58: 119-120. doi: 10.1111/myc.12284.
Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S et al. Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017; 64: 134-140. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw691
Arendrup MC, Prakash A, Meletiadis J, et al. Comparison of EUCAST and CLSI reference microdilution MICs of eight antifungal compounds for Candida auris and associated tentative epidemiological cutoff values. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 2017; 61 (6): e00485-17. doi:10.1128/AAC.00485-17
Kean R, Brown J, Gulmez D, Ware A, Ramage G. Candida auris: A decade of understanding of an enigmatic pathogenic yeast. Journal of Fungi (Basel). 2020; 6 (1): 30. doi:10.3390/jof6010030
Kaitlin Forsberg, Kate Woodworth, Maroya Walters, et al. Candida auris: The recent emergence of a multidrug-resistant fungal pathogen, Medical Mycology, 2019; 57 (1): 1-12. doi: 10.1093/mmy/myy054
Spivak ES, Hanson KE. Candida auris: an emerging fungal pathogen. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2018; 56 (2). doi: 10.1128/JCM.01588-17
Hata DJ, Humphries R, Lockhart SR, College of American Pathologists Microbiology Committee. Candida auris: an emerging yeast pathogen posing distinct challenges for laboratory diagnostics, treatment, and infection prevention. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. 2020; 144 (1): 107-114. doi:10.5858/arpa.2018-0508-RA
Du H, Bing J, Hu T, et al. Candida auris: Epidemiology, biology, antifungal resistance, and virulence. PLoS Pathogens. 2020; 16 (10): e1008921. doi: 10.1371/ journal.ppat.1008921
Bing J, Hu T, Zheng Q, et al. Experimental evolution Identifies Adaptive aneuploidy as a mechanism of fluconazole resistance in Candida auris. Antimicrobial Agents of Chemotherapy. 2020; 65: e01466. doi:10.1128/AAC.01466-20
Chow NA, Munoz JF, Gade L, et al. Tracing the evolutionary history and global expansion of Candida auris using population genomic analyses. mBio. 2020; 11: e03364. doi:10.1128/mBio.03364-19
Jenull S, Tscherner M, Kashko N, et al. Transcriptome signatures predict phenotypic variations of Candida auris. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2021; 11: 662563. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.662563
Munoz JF, Welsh RM, Shea T, et al. Clade-specific chromosomal rearrangements and loss of subtelomeric adhesins in Candida auris. Genetics. 2021; 218: iyab029. doi:10.1093/genetics/iyab029
Veen M, Stahl U, Lang C. Combined overexpression of genes of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway leads to accumulation of sterols in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Yeast Research. 2003; 4 (1): 87-95. doi:10.1016/S1567-1356(03)00126-0
Bhattacharya S, Esquivel BD, White TC. Overexpression or deletion of ergosterol biosynthesis genes alters doubling time, response to stress agents, and drug susceptibility in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. mBio. 2018; 9: 10.1128/mbio.01291.18. doi:10.1128/mbio.01291-18].
Delattin N, Cammue BP, Thevissen K. Reactive oxygen species-inducing antifungal agents and their activity against fungal biofilms. Future Medicinal Chemistry. 2014; 6 (1): 77-90. doi:10.4155/fmc.13.189
Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, et al. Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017; 64 (2): 134–140. doi: 10.1093/cid/ ciw691
Chowdhary A, Prakash A, Sharma C, et al. A multicentre study of antifungal susceptibility patterns among 350 Candida auris isolates (2009–17) in India: role of the ERG11 and FKS1 genes in azole and echinocandin resistance. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2018; 73: 891-99. doi:10.1093/jac/dkx480
Munoz JF, Gade L, Chow NA, et al. Genomic insights into multidrug- resistance, mating and virulence in Candida auris and related emerging species. Nature Communications. 2018; 9: 5346. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07779-6
Chow NA, Muñoz JF, Gade L, et al. Tracing the evolutionary history and global expansion of Candida auris using population genomic analyses. mBio. 2020; 11 (2): e03364-19. doi:10.1128/mBio.03364-19
Morschhäuser J, Barker KS, Liu TT, et al. The transcription factor Mrr1p controls expression of the MDR1 efflux pump and mediates multidrug resistance in Candida albicans. PLoS Pathogens. 2017; 3: e164. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0030164
Sharma, C., Kumar, N., Pandey, R., et al. Whole genome sequencing of emerging multidrug resistant Candida auris isolates in India demonstrates low genetic variation. New Microbes and New Infections. 2016; 13: 77-82. doi: 10.1016/j.nmni.2016.07.003
Rybak JM, Doorley LA, Nishimoto AT, et al. Abrogation of triazole resistance upon deletion of CDR1 in a clinical isolate of Candida auris. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2019; 63: e00057-19. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00057-19.
Chowdhary A, Jain K, Chauhan N. Candida auris genetics and emergence. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2023; 77: 583-602. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-032521-015858
Frías-De-León MG, Hernández-Castro R, Vite-Garín T, et al. Antifungal resistance in Candida auris: Molecular determinants. Antibiotics (Basel). 2020; 9 (9): 568. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9090568
Hull CM, Bader O, Parker JE, et al. Two clinical isolates of Candida glabrata exhibiting reduced sensitivity to amphotericin B both harbor mutations in ERG2. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2012; 56: 6417-21. doi:10.1128/AAC.01145-12
Escandón P, Chow NA, Caceres DH, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Candida auris in Colombia reveals a highly related, countrywide colonization with regional patterns in Amphotericin B resistance. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2019; 68: 15-21. doi:10.1093/cid/ciy411
Rybak JM, Barker KS, Munoz JF, et al. In vivo emergence of high-level resistance during treatment reveals the first identified mechanism of amphotericin B resistance in Candida auris. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2022; 28: 838-43. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2021.11.024
Ostrowsky B, Greenko J, Adams E, et al. Candida auris ısolates resistant to three classes of antifungal medications New York, 2019. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2020; 69: 6-9. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6901a2
Osei Sekyere, J. Candida auris: A systematic review and meta-analysis of current updates on an emerging multidrug-resistant pathogen. Miocrobiology Open 2018; 7: e00578. doi:10.1002/mbo3.578
Arendrup, M.C.; Patterson, T.F. Multidrug-Resistant Candida: epidemiology, molecular mechanisms, and treatment. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2017; 216 (Suppl. 3): S445-S451. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix131
Perlin DS. Echinocandin resistance in Candida. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2015; 61 (Suppl. 6): S612–17. doi:10.1093/cid/civ791
Bidaud AL, Chowdhary A, Dannaoui E. Candida auris: An emerging drug resistant yeast - A mini-review. Journal of Medical Mycology. 2018; 28 (3): 568-573. doi:10.1016/j.mycmed.2018.06.007
Kordalewska M, Lee A, Park S, et al. Understanding echinocandin resistance in the emerging pathogen Candida auris. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2018; 62 (6): e00238-18. doi:10.1128/AAC.00238-18
Rhodes J, Abdolrasouli A, Farrer RA, et al. Genomic epidemiology of the UK outbreak of the emerging human fungal pathogen Candida auris. Emerging Microbes & Infections. 2018; 7: 43. doi: 10.1101/201343
Vandeputte P, Ferrari S, Coste AT. Antifungal resistance and new strategies to control fungal infections. International Journal of Microbiology. 2012: 713687. doi: 10.1155/2012/713687
Chaabane F, Graf A, Jequier L, et al. Review on antifungal resistance mechanisms in the emerging pathogen Candida auris. Frontiers Microbiology. 2019; 10: 2788. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.02788
Romera D, Aguilera-Correa JJ, Gadea I, et al. Candida auris: a comparison between planktonic and biofilm susceptibility to antifungal drugs. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2019; 68 (9): 1353-1358. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.001036
Jeffery-Smith A, Taori SK, Schelenz S, et al. Candida auris: a review of the literature. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2017; 31 (1): e00029-17. doi:10.1128/CMR.00029-17
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