Postpartum Kanamalar
Özet
Postpartum kanama dünya çapında anne morbidite, mortalite ve doğumla ilişkili yoğun bakım ünitelerine başvuruların ana nedeni olmaya devam etmektedir. Etyolojisinde pek çok faktör bulunmaktadır ve en sık görülen neden halen uterin atonidir. Günümüzde sezeryan doğumların artması ile birlikte anormal plasentasyon ve plasenta akreata spekturumunun postpartum kanama etyolojisindeki rolü önem kazanmaktadır. Çoğu zaman önlenebilir olmasına rağmen hem düşük hem de yüksek gelirli ülkelerde halen anne ölümlerine neden olmaktadır. Riskli hastaların ve kanamanın zamanında tespit edilmesi ve gecikmeden müdahele edilmesi büyük önem taşımaktadır. Yönetimde çoğu durumda kadın doğum uzmanları, anestezi ve reanimasyon uzmanları ve yoğun bakım uzmanları birlikte çalışmakta ve hastalar birlikte yönetilmektedir. Tıbbi tedavilerin yanı sıra cerrahi müdahale gerektiren ciddi vakalar ve yoğun kan ve kan ürünleri kullanımı da ekibin hazırlıklı, deneyimli ve donanımlı olmasını gerektirmektedir. Bu bölümde postpartum kanamanın tanı, tedavi ve yönetiminde faydalı olabilecek ana konular güncel literatür ve kılavuzlar doğrultusunda derlenmiştir.
Postpartum hemorrhage continues to be the main cause of maternal morbidity, mortality and obstetric-related intensive care unit admissions worldwide. There are many factors in etiology, and the most common cause is still uterine atony. Nowadays, with the increasing number of cesarean deliveries, the role of abnormal placentation and placenta accreta spectrum in the etiology of postpartum bleeding is gaining importance. Although it is often preventable, it can still cause maternal deaths in both low- and high-income countries. It is of great importance to identify risky patients and bleeding in a timely manner and to intervene without delay. In management, gynecologists, anesthesia and reanimation specialists and intensive care specialists work together in most cases, and patients are managed together. In addition to medical treatments, serious cases requiring surgical intervention and intensive use of blood and blood products require the team to be prepared, experienced and equipped. In this section, main topics that may be useful in the diagnosis, treatment and management of postpartum bleeding have been compiled in line with current literature and guidelines.
Referanslar
Corbetta-Rastelli CM, Friedman AM, Sobhani NC, et al. Postpartum Hemorrhage Trends and Outcomes in the United States, 2000-2019. Obstet Gynecol. 2023; 141:152.
Deneux-Tharaux C, Bonnet MP, Tort J. [Epidemiology of post-partum haemorrhage]. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod. 2014; 43:936.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality
WHO Recommendations for the Prevention and Treatment of Postpartum Haemorrhage. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012.
Prevention and Management of Postpartum Haemorrhage: Green-top Guideline No. 52. BJOG. 2017 Apr;124(5):e106-e149.
Abdul-Kadir R, McLintock C, Ducloy AS, El-Refaey H, England A, Federici AB, Grotegut CA, Halimeh S, Herman JH, Hofer S, James AH, Kouides PA, Paidas MJ, Peyvandi F, Winikoff R. Evaluation and management of postpartum hemorrhage: consensus from an international expert panel. Transfusion. 2014 ;54(7):1756-68.
Committee on Practice Bulletins-Obstetrics. Practice Bulletin No. 183: Postpartum Hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;130(4):e168-e186.
Dahlke JD, Mendez-Figueroa H, Maggio L, et al. Prevention and management of postpartum hemorrhage: a comparison of 4 national guidelines. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015; 213:76.
Kramer MS, Berg C, Abenhaim H, Dahhou M, Rouleau J, Mehrabadi A, Joseph KS. Incidence, risk factors, and temporal trends in severe postpartum hemorrhage. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Nov;209(5):449.e1-7.
Anderson JM, Etches D. Prevention and management of postpartum hemorrhage. Am Fam Physician. 2007;75(6):875-82.
Ende HB, Lozada MJ, Chestnut DH, et al. Risk factors for atonic postpartum hemorrhage: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Obstet Gynecol.2021;137:305e23.
Schlembach D, Helmer H, Henrich W, von Heymann C, Kainer F, Korte W, Kühnert M, Lier H, Maul H, Rath W, Steppat S, Surbek D, Wacker J. Peripartum Haemorrhage, Diagnosis and Therapy. Guideline of the DGGG, OEGGG and SGGG (S2k Level, AWMF Registry No. 015/063, March 2016). Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 2018;78(4):382-399.
Fukami T, Koga H, Goto M, Ando M, Matsuoka S, Tohyama A, Yamamoto H, Nakamura S, Koyanagi T, To Y, Kondo H, Eguchi F, Tsujioka H. Incidence and risk factors for postpartum hemorrhage among transvaginal deliveries at a tertiary perinatal medical facility in Japan. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0208873.
Edwards HM, Svare JA, Wikkelsø AJ, et al. The increasing role of a retained placenta in postpartum blood loss: a cohort study. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2019;299:733e40.
Perlman NC, Carusi DA. Retained placenta after vaginal delivery: risk factors and management. Int J Womens Health.2019;11:527e34.
Evensen A, Anderson J. Chapter J. Postpartum hemorrhage: third stage pregnancy. In: Leeman L, Quinlan J, Dresang LT, eds. Advanced Life Support in Obstetrics: Provider Syllabus. 5th ed. Leawood, Kan.: American Academy of Family Physicians; 2014.
Say L., Chou D., Gemmill A., et al. Global causes of maternal death: a WHO systematic analysis. The Lancet global health. 2014; 2.6: e323-e333.
Bienstock JL, Eke AC, Hueppchen NA. Postpartum Hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(17):1635-1645.
Ouzounian JG, Elkayam U. Physiologic changes during normal pregnancy and delivery. Cardiol Clin. 2012;30(3):317-29.
McLintock C, James AH. Obstetric hemorrhage. J Thromb Haemost. 2011;9(8):1441-51.
Escobar MF, Nassar AH, Theron G, et al. FIGO recommendations on the management of postpartum hemorrhage 2022. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2022;157:3e50
Pritchard Ja. Changes In The Blood Volume During Pregnancy And Delivery. Anesthesiology. 1965;26:393-9.
Pacagnella RC, Borovac-Pinheiro A. Assessing and managing hypovolemic shock in puerperal women. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2019;61:89-105.
Hancock A, Weeks AD, Lavender DT. Is accurate and reliable blood loss estimation the 'crucial step' in early detection of postpartum haemorrhage: an integrative review of the literature. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth.2015;15:230.
Schorn MN. Measurement of blood loss: review of the literature. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2010 ;55(1):20-7.
Quantitative Blood Loss in Obstetric Hemorrhage: ACOG COMMITTEE OPINION, Number 794. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;134(6):e150-e156.
Zhang WH, Deneux-Tharaux C, Brocklehurst P, et al. Effect of a collector bag for measurement of postpartum blood loss after vaginal delivery: cluster randomised trial in 13 European countries. BMJ. 2010;340:c293.
Henriquez, Dacia DCA, Kitty WM Bloemenkamp, and Johanna G. van der Bom. Management of postpartum hemorrhage: how to improve maternal outcomes?. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis 16.8 (2018): 1523-1534.
Drew T, Carvalho JCA, Subramanian C, et al. The association of shock index and haemoglobin variation with postpartum haemorrhage after vaginal delivery: a prospective cohort pilot study. Int J Obstet Anesth .2021;45:67e73.
Mahendru AA, Everett TR, Wilkinson IB, et al. A longitudinal study of maternal cardiovascular function from preconception to the postpartum period. J Hypertens. 2014;32:849e56.
Chaudhary M, Maitra N, Sheth T, Vaishnav P. Shock Index in the Prediction of Adverse Maternal Outcome. J Obstet Gynaecol India. 2020;70(5):355-359.
Makino Y, Miyake K, Okada A, Ikeda Y, Okada Y. Predictive accuracy of the shock index for severe postpartum hemorrhage in high-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2022;48(8):2027-2037.
Ushida T, Kotani T, Imai K, Nakano-Kobayashi T, Nakamura N, Moriyama Y, Yoshida S, Yamashita M, Kajiyama H, Kikkawa F. Shock Index and Postpartum Hemorrhage in Vaginal Deliveries: A Multicenter Retrospective Study. Shock. 2021;55(3):332-337.
Quiñones JN, Uxer JB, Gogle J, Scorza WE, Smulian JC. Clinical evaluation during postpartum hemorrhage. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2010;53(1):157-64.
Yefet E, Yossef A, Suleiman A, et al. Hemoglobin drop following postpartum hemorrhage. Sci Rep. 2020;10:21546.
Bloom BA, Gibbons RC. Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma. 2023 Feb 5. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023.
Lobo V, Hunter-Behrend M, Cullnan E, Higbee R, Phillips C, Williams S, Perera P, Gharahbaghian L. Caudal Edge of the Liver in the Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) View Is the Most Sensitive Area for Free Fluid on the FAST Exam. West J Emerg Med. 2017(2):270-280.
Oba T, Koyano M, Hasegawa J, Takita H, Arakaki T, Nakamura M, Sekizawa A. The inferior vena cava diameter is a useful ultrasound finding for predicting postpartum blood loss. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2019;32(19):3251-3254.
Menon LP, Balakrishnan JM, Wilson W, Thomas MK. Caval Aortic Index: A Novel Tool for Fluid Assessment in Obstetric Emergencies. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2020;13(1):50-53.
Butwick AJ, Goodnough LT. Transfusion and coagulation management in major obstetric hemorrhage. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2015 ;28(3):275-84.
Amgalan A, Allen T, Othman M, Ahmadzia HK. Systematic review of viscoelastic testing (TEG/ROTEM) in obstetrics and recommendations from the women's SSC of the ISTH. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(8):1813-1838.
Kerr RS, Weeks AD. Postpartum haemorrhage: a single is no longer enough. BJOG.2017;124:723e6.
Hogerzeil H, Battersby A, Srdanovic V, et al. Stability of essential drugs during shipment to the tropics. Br Med J. 1992;304: 210e2.
Kaya B, Guralp O, Tuten A, Unal O, Celik MO, Dogan A. Which uterine sparing technique should be used for uterine atony during cesarean section? The Bakri balloon or the B-Lynch suture? Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2016;294(3):511-7.
D'Alton ME, Rood KM, Smid MC, Simhan HN, Skupski DW, Subramaniam A, Gibson KS, Rosen T, Clark SM, Dudley D, Iqbal SN, Paglia MJ, Duzyj CM, Chien EK, Gibbins KJ, Wine KD, Bentum NAA, Kominiarek MA, Tuuli MG, Goffman D. Intrauterine Vacuum-Induced Hemorrhage-Control Device for Rapid Treatment of Postpartum Hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol. 2020;136(5):882-891.
McKenney K, Lundsberg LS, Culhane JF, et al. Factors associated with hysterectomy for postpartum hemorrhage: a casecontrol study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2022;226:S452.
Waters JH, Bonnet MP. When and how should I transfuse during obstetric hemorrhage? Int J Obstet Anesth. 2021;46:102973.
Holcomb JB, Tilley BC, Baraniuk S, Fox EE, Wade CE, Podbielski JM, del Junco DJ, Brasel KJ, Bulger EM, Callcut RA, Cohen MJ, Cotton BA, Fabian TC, Inaba K, Kerby JD, Muskat P, O'Keeffe T, Rizoli S, Robinson BR, Scalea TM, Schreiber MA, Stein DM, Weinberg JA, Callum JL, Hess JR, Matijevic N, Miller CN, Pittet JF, Hoyt DB, Pearson GD, Leroux B, van Belle G; PROPPR Study Group. Transfusion of plasma, platelets, and red blood cells in a 1:1:1 vs a 1:1:2 ratio and mortality in patients with severe trauma: the PROPPR randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;313(5):471-82.
Levi M, Fries D, Gombotz H, van der Linden P, Nascimento B, Callum JL, Bélisle S, Rizoli S, Hardy JF, Johansson PI, Samama CM, Grottke O, Rossaint R, Henny CP, Goslings JC, Theusinger OM, Spahn DR, Ganter MT, Hess JR, Dutton RP, Scalea TM, Levy JH, Spinella PC, Panzer S, Reesink HW. Prevention and treatment of coagulopathy in patients receiving massive transfusions. Vox Sang. 2011;101(2):154-74.
Schorn MN, Phillippi JC. Volume replacement following severe postpartum hemorrhage. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2014;59(3):336-43.
Enste R, Cricchio P, Dewandre PY, Braun T, Leonards CO, Niggemann P, Spies C, Henrich W, Kaufner L. Placenta Accreta Spectrum Part II: hemostatic considerations based on an extended review of the literature. J Perinat Med. 2022.
Charbit B, Mandelbrot L, Samain E, et al. The decrease of fibrinogen is an early predictor of the severity of postpartum hemorrhage. J Thromb Haemostasis. 2007;5:266-73.
WOMAN Trial Collaborators. Effect of early tranexamic acid administration on mortality, hysterectomy, and other morbidities in women with post-partum haemorrhage (WOMAN): an international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2017;389(10084):2105-2116.
WHO Recommendation on Tranexamic Acid for the Treatment of Postpartum Haemorrhage. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017.
Epstein D, Solomon N, Korytny A, et al. Association between ionised calcium and severity of postpartum haemorrhage: a retrospective cohort study. Br J Anaesth. 2021;126:1022-8.
Karlsson O, Jeppsson A, Hellgren M. Major obstetric haemorrhage: monitoring with thromboelastography, laboratory analyses or both? Int J Obstet Anesth. 2014;23:10e7.
Katz D, Farber MK. Can measuring blood loss at delivery reduce hemorrhage-related morbidity? Int J Obstet Anesth. 2021; 46:102968.
Bolton-Maggs PH, Cohen H. Serious H azards of T ransfusion (SHOT) haemovigilance and progress is improving transfusion safety. Br J Haematol. 2013;163:303e14.
Mhyre JM, Shilkrut A, Kuklina EV, et al. Massive blood transfusion during hospitalization for delivery in New York State, 1998e2007. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;122:1288.
Jiao C, Zheng L. Blood transfusion-related immunomodulation in patients with major obstetric haemorrhage. Vox Sanguinis.2019;114:861-8.
Surbek D, Vial Y, Girard T, et al. Patient blood management (PBM) in pregnancy and childbirth: literature review and expert opinion. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2020;301:627-41.
McNamara H, Kenyon C, Smith R, et al. Four years' experience of a ROTEM®-guided algorithm for treatment of coagulopathy in obstetric haemorrhage. Anaesthesia. 2019;74:984-91.
Snegovskikh D, Souza D, Walton Z, et al. Point-of-care viscoelastic testing improves the outcome of pregnancies complicated by severe postpartum hemorrhage. Obstet Anesth Digest. 2018;38:82-3.
Waters JH, Beck S, Yazer MH. How do I perform cell salvage in obstetrics? Transfusion. 2019;59(7):2199-2202.
Padilla C, Markwei M, Easter SR, Fox KA, Shamshirsaz AA, Foley MR. Critical care in obstetrics: a strategy for addressing maternal mortality. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2021;224(6):567-573.
ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 211: Critical Care in Pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;133(5):e303-e319.
Padilla CR, Shamshirsaz A. Critical care in obstetrics. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2022;36(1):209-225.
Mhyre JM, Tsen LC, Einav S, et al. Cardiac arrest during hospitalization for delivery in the United States, 1998e2011. Anesthesiology. 2014;120:810-8.
Della Torre M, Kilpatrick SJ, Ju Hibbard, et al. Assessing preventability for obstetric hemorrhage. Am J Perinatology. 2011; 28:753-60.
Lepine SJ, Geller SE, Pledger M, et al. Severe maternal morbidity due to obstetric haemorrhage: potential preventability. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2020;60:212-7.
Patterson JA, Nippita TA, Randall D, et al. Outcomes associated with transfusion in low-risk women with obstetric haemorrhage. Vox Sanguinis. 2018;113:678e85.
Yoshida K, Watanabe K, Sato Y, et al. Successful perioperative management with damage control surgery in a patient with massive postpartum hemorrhage of more than 20,000 mL. Case Reports in Anesthesiology; 2020. p. 2020.
Referanslar
Corbetta-Rastelli CM, Friedman AM, Sobhani NC, et al. Postpartum Hemorrhage Trends and Outcomes in the United States, 2000-2019. Obstet Gynecol. 2023; 141:152.
Deneux-Tharaux C, Bonnet MP, Tort J. [Epidemiology of post-partum haemorrhage]. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod. 2014; 43:936.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality
WHO Recommendations for the Prevention and Treatment of Postpartum Haemorrhage. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012.
Prevention and Management of Postpartum Haemorrhage: Green-top Guideline No. 52. BJOG. 2017 Apr;124(5):e106-e149.
Abdul-Kadir R, McLintock C, Ducloy AS, El-Refaey H, England A, Federici AB, Grotegut CA, Halimeh S, Herman JH, Hofer S, James AH, Kouides PA, Paidas MJ, Peyvandi F, Winikoff R. Evaluation and management of postpartum hemorrhage: consensus from an international expert panel. Transfusion. 2014 ;54(7):1756-68.
Committee on Practice Bulletins-Obstetrics. Practice Bulletin No. 183: Postpartum Hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;130(4):e168-e186.
Dahlke JD, Mendez-Figueroa H, Maggio L, et al. Prevention and management of postpartum hemorrhage: a comparison of 4 national guidelines. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015; 213:76.
Kramer MS, Berg C, Abenhaim H, Dahhou M, Rouleau J, Mehrabadi A, Joseph KS. Incidence, risk factors, and temporal trends in severe postpartum hemorrhage. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Nov;209(5):449.e1-7.
Anderson JM, Etches D. Prevention and management of postpartum hemorrhage. Am Fam Physician. 2007;75(6):875-82.
Ende HB, Lozada MJ, Chestnut DH, et al. Risk factors for atonic postpartum hemorrhage: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Obstet Gynecol.2021;137:305e23.
Schlembach D, Helmer H, Henrich W, von Heymann C, Kainer F, Korte W, Kühnert M, Lier H, Maul H, Rath W, Steppat S, Surbek D, Wacker J. Peripartum Haemorrhage, Diagnosis and Therapy. Guideline of the DGGG, OEGGG and SGGG (S2k Level, AWMF Registry No. 015/063, March 2016). Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 2018;78(4):382-399.
Fukami T, Koga H, Goto M, Ando M, Matsuoka S, Tohyama A, Yamamoto H, Nakamura S, Koyanagi T, To Y, Kondo H, Eguchi F, Tsujioka H. Incidence and risk factors for postpartum hemorrhage among transvaginal deliveries at a tertiary perinatal medical facility in Japan. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0208873.
Edwards HM, Svare JA, Wikkelsø AJ, et al. The increasing role of a retained placenta in postpartum blood loss: a cohort study. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2019;299:733e40.
Perlman NC, Carusi DA. Retained placenta after vaginal delivery: risk factors and management. Int J Womens Health.2019;11:527e34.
Evensen A, Anderson J. Chapter J. Postpartum hemorrhage: third stage pregnancy. In: Leeman L, Quinlan J, Dresang LT, eds. Advanced Life Support in Obstetrics: Provider Syllabus. 5th ed. Leawood, Kan.: American Academy of Family Physicians; 2014.
Say L., Chou D., Gemmill A., et al. Global causes of maternal death: a WHO systematic analysis. The Lancet global health. 2014; 2.6: e323-e333.
Bienstock JL, Eke AC, Hueppchen NA. Postpartum Hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(17):1635-1645.
Ouzounian JG, Elkayam U. Physiologic changes during normal pregnancy and delivery. Cardiol Clin. 2012;30(3):317-29.
McLintock C, James AH. Obstetric hemorrhage. J Thromb Haemost. 2011;9(8):1441-51.
Escobar MF, Nassar AH, Theron G, et al. FIGO recommendations on the management of postpartum hemorrhage 2022. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2022;157:3e50
Pritchard Ja. Changes In The Blood Volume During Pregnancy And Delivery. Anesthesiology. 1965;26:393-9.
Pacagnella RC, Borovac-Pinheiro A. Assessing and managing hypovolemic shock in puerperal women. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2019;61:89-105.
Hancock A, Weeks AD, Lavender DT. Is accurate and reliable blood loss estimation the 'crucial step' in early detection of postpartum haemorrhage: an integrative review of the literature. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth.2015;15:230.
Schorn MN. Measurement of blood loss: review of the literature. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2010 ;55(1):20-7.
Quantitative Blood Loss in Obstetric Hemorrhage: ACOG COMMITTEE OPINION, Number 794. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;134(6):e150-e156.
Zhang WH, Deneux-Tharaux C, Brocklehurst P, et al. Effect of a collector bag for measurement of postpartum blood loss after vaginal delivery: cluster randomised trial in 13 European countries. BMJ. 2010;340:c293.
Henriquez, Dacia DCA, Kitty WM Bloemenkamp, and Johanna G. van der Bom. Management of postpartum hemorrhage: how to improve maternal outcomes?. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis 16.8 (2018): 1523-1534.
Drew T, Carvalho JCA, Subramanian C, et al. The association of shock index and haemoglobin variation with postpartum haemorrhage after vaginal delivery: a prospective cohort pilot study. Int J Obstet Anesth .2021;45:67e73.
Mahendru AA, Everett TR, Wilkinson IB, et al. A longitudinal study of maternal cardiovascular function from preconception to the postpartum period. J Hypertens. 2014;32:849e56.
Chaudhary M, Maitra N, Sheth T, Vaishnav P. Shock Index in the Prediction of Adverse Maternal Outcome. J Obstet Gynaecol India. 2020;70(5):355-359.
Makino Y, Miyake K, Okada A, Ikeda Y, Okada Y. Predictive accuracy of the shock index for severe postpartum hemorrhage in high-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2022;48(8):2027-2037.
Ushida T, Kotani T, Imai K, Nakano-Kobayashi T, Nakamura N, Moriyama Y, Yoshida S, Yamashita M, Kajiyama H, Kikkawa F. Shock Index and Postpartum Hemorrhage in Vaginal Deliveries: A Multicenter Retrospective Study. Shock. 2021;55(3):332-337.
Quiñones JN, Uxer JB, Gogle J, Scorza WE, Smulian JC. Clinical evaluation during postpartum hemorrhage. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2010;53(1):157-64.
Yefet E, Yossef A, Suleiman A, et al. Hemoglobin drop following postpartum hemorrhage. Sci Rep. 2020;10:21546.
Bloom BA, Gibbons RC. Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma. 2023 Feb 5. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023.
Lobo V, Hunter-Behrend M, Cullnan E, Higbee R, Phillips C, Williams S, Perera P, Gharahbaghian L. Caudal Edge of the Liver in the Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) View Is the Most Sensitive Area for Free Fluid on the FAST Exam. West J Emerg Med. 2017(2):270-280.
Oba T, Koyano M, Hasegawa J, Takita H, Arakaki T, Nakamura M, Sekizawa A. The inferior vena cava diameter is a useful ultrasound finding for predicting postpartum blood loss. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2019;32(19):3251-3254.
Menon LP, Balakrishnan JM, Wilson W, Thomas MK. Caval Aortic Index: A Novel Tool for Fluid Assessment in Obstetric Emergencies. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2020;13(1):50-53.
Butwick AJ, Goodnough LT. Transfusion and coagulation management in major obstetric hemorrhage. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2015 ;28(3):275-84.
Amgalan A, Allen T, Othman M, Ahmadzia HK. Systematic review of viscoelastic testing (TEG/ROTEM) in obstetrics and recommendations from the women's SSC of the ISTH. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(8):1813-1838.
Kerr RS, Weeks AD. Postpartum haemorrhage: a single is no longer enough. BJOG.2017;124:723e6.
Hogerzeil H, Battersby A, Srdanovic V, et al. Stability of essential drugs during shipment to the tropics. Br Med J. 1992;304: 210e2.
Kaya B, Guralp O, Tuten A, Unal O, Celik MO, Dogan A. Which uterine sparing technique should be used for uterine atony during cesarean section? The Bakri balloon or the B-Lynch suture? Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2016;294(3):511-7.
D'Alton ME, Rood KM, Smid MC, Simhan HN, Skupski DW, Subramaniam A, Gibson KS, Rosen T, Clark SM, Dudley D, Iqbal SN, Paglia MJ, Duzyj CM, Chien EK, Gibbins KJ, Wine KD, Bentum NAA, Kominiarek MA, Tuuli MG, Goffman D. Intrauterine Vacuum-Induced Hemorrhage-Control Device for Rapid Treatment of Postpartum Hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol. 2020;136(5):882-891.
McKenney K, Lundsberg LS, Culhane JF, et al. Factors associated with hysterectomy for postpartum hemorrhage: a casecontrol study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2022;226:S452.
Waters JH, Bonnet MP. When and how should I transfuse during obstetric hemorrhage? Int J Obstet Anesth. 2021;46:102973.
Holcomb JB, Tilley BC, Baraniuk S, Fox EE, Wade CE, Podbielski JM, del Junco DJ, Brasel KJ, Bulger EM, Callcut RA, Cohen MJ, Cotton BA, Fabian TC, Inaba K, Kerby JD, Muskat P, O'Keeffe T, Rizoli S, Robinson BR, Scalea TM, Schreiber MA, Stein DM, Weinberg JA, Callum JL, Hess JR, Matijevic N, Miller CN, Pittet JF, Hoyt DB, Pearson GD, Leroux B, van Belle G; PROPPR Study Group. Transfusion of plasma, platelets, and red blood cells in a 1:1:1 vs a 1:1:2 ratio and mortality in patients with severe trauma: the PROPPR randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;313(5):471-82.
Levi M, Fries D, Gombotz H, van der Linden P, Nascimento B, Callum JL, Bélisle S, Rizoli S, Hardy JF, Johansson PI, Samama CM, Grottke O, Rossaint R, Henny CP, Goslings JC, Theusinger OM, Spahn DR, Ganter MT, Hess JR, Dutton RP, Scalea TM, Levy JH, Spinella PC, Panzer S, Reesink HW. Prevention and treatment of coagulopathy in patients receiving massive transfusions. Vox Sang. 2011;101(2):154-74.
Schorn MN, Phillippi JC. Volume replacement following severe postpartum hemorrhage. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2014;59(3):336-43.
Enste R, Cricchio P, Dewandre PY, Braun T, Leonards CO, Niggemann P, Spies C, Henrich W, Kaufner L. Placenta Accreta Spectrum Part II: hemostatic considerations based on an extended review of the literature. J Perinat Med. 2022.
Charbit B, Mandelbrot L, Samain E, et al. The decrease of fibrinogen is an early predictor of the severity of postpartum hemorrhage. J Thromb Haemostasis. 2007;5:266-73.
WOMAN Trial Collaborators. Effect of early tranexamic acid administration on mortality, hysterectomy, and other morbidities in women with post-partum haemorrhage (WOMAN): an international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2017;389(10084):2105-2116.
WHO Recommendation on Tranexamic Acid for the Treatment of Postpartum Haemorrhage. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017.
Epstein D, Solomon N, Korytny A, et al. Association between ionised calcium and severity of postpartum haemorrhage: a retrospective cohort study. Br J Anaesth. 2021;126:1022-8.
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