Sepsis / Septik Şok
Özet
Sepsis, var olan bir infeksiyon odağına ve infeksiyon etkenine karşı konakçının aşırı ve düzensiz yanıtı olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Ateş, bilinç bulanıklığı, organ yetmezliği en önemli bulgular olmasına karşın, bulgular oldukça geniş yelpazede karşımıza çıkabilmektedir. Sepsis patojenleri arasında ilk sırayı bakteriler almaktadır. Daha az teşhis edilse de virüslerin sebep olduğu sepsis oranları da azımsanmayacak ölçüde yüksek saptanmıştır.
Patogenezde enfeksiyon odağından sistemik dolaşıma giren mikroorganizmalar ya da bu mikroorganizmaların açığa çıkan ürünleri/toksinleri bakteriyemiye ve sepsis mekanizmasının başlamasına sebep olurlar. İleri yaş ve altta yatan hastalık tabloları risk faktörlerini oluşturmaktadır.
Laboratuvar bulgularından lökositoz/lökopeni, trombositopeni ve organ yetmezlik bulguları (kreatin artışı, hiperbillurubinemi, hipoksemi vb..) içeren değerleri görmekteyiz. Enfeksiyon odağına yönelik görüntüleme yöntemlerinden de yararlanılmalı, tanı hızlıca konulduktan sonra uygun mikrobiyolojik örnekler alınmalıdır. Geniş spektrumlu, bakterisidal ajanların tercih edildiği ve bu tercihlerde yerel mikrobiyolojik verilerin de dikkate alındığı bir süreçle hızlıca tedaviye başlanmalıdır. Antibiyotik tedavisine ek olarak IV sıvı tedavisi de planlanmalıdır.
Mortalite birçok çalışmada farklılık gösterse de yüzde 10-52 arasında değişmektedir. Prognoz ileri yaş, artan komorbidite sayısı ve enfeksiyon odağına bağlı değişse de genellikle kötü seyretmektedir.
Referanslar
Rudd KE, Johnson SC, Agesa KM, Shackelford KA, Tsoi D, Kievlan DR, et al. Global, regional, and national sepsis incidence and mortality, 1990-2017: analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet (London, England). 2020;395(10219):200-11.
Funk DJ1, Parrillo JE, Kumar A.Sepsis and septic shock: a history.Crit Care Clin. 2009 Jan;25(1):83-101, viii. doi: 10.1016/j. ccc.2008.12.003.
Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med. 2003 Apr 17;348(16):1546-54. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa022139. PMID: 12700374.
Walkey AJ, Wiener RS, Lindenauer PK. Utilization patterns and outcomes associated with central venous catheter in septic shock: a population-based study. Crit Care Med. 2013 Jun;41(6):1450-7. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31827caa89. PMID: 23507718; PMCID: PMC3780984.
Li A, Ling L, Qin H, Arabi YM, Myatra SN, Egi M, Kim JH, Mat Nor MB, Son DN, Fang WF, Wahyuprajitno B, Hashmi M, Faruq MO, Patjanasoontorn B, Al Bahrani MJ, Shrestha BR, Shrestha U, Nafees KMK, Sann KK, Palo JEM, Mendsaikhan N, Konkayev A, Detleuxay K, Chan YH, Du B, Divatia JV, Koh Y, Gomersall CD, Phua J. Epidemiology, Management, and Outcomes of Sepsis in ICUs among Countries of Differing National Wealth across Asia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2022 Nov 1;206(9):1107-1116. doi: 10.1164/rccm.202112-2743OC. PMID: 35763381.
Danai PA, Sinha S, Moss M, Haber MJ, Martin GS. Seasonal variation in the epidemiology of sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2007 Feb;35(2):410-5. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000253405.17038.43. PMID: 17167351.
Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, Clermont G, Carcillo J, Pinsky MR. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med. 2001 Jul;29(7):1303-10. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00002. PMID: 11445675.
Uslan, D. Z., Crane, S. J., Steckelberg, J. M., Cockerill, F. R., 3rd, St Sauver, J. L., Wilson, W. R., & Baddour, L. M. (2007). Age- and sex-associated trends in bloodstream infection: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Archives of internal medicine, 167(8), 834–839. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.167.8.834
Gupta, S., Sakhuja, A., Kumar, G., McGrath, E., Nanchal, R. S., & Kashani, K. B. (2016). Culture-Negative Severe Sepsis: Nationwide Trends and Outcomes. Chest, 150(6), 1251–1259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2016.08.1460
Gu, X., Zhou, F., Wang, Y., Fan, G., & Cao, B. (2020). Respiratory viral sepsis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment. European respiratory review : an official journal of the European Respiratory Society, 29(157), 200038. https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0038-2020
Ural O. Sepsis fizyopatolojisi ve alternatif tedaviler. Yoğun Bakım Dergisi 2007; 7(1): 173-7.
Janeway CA Jr, Medzhitov R. Introduction: The role of innate immunity in the adaptive immune response. Semin Immunol 1998;10:349-50
Wang JE, Jorgensen PF, Almlof M, et al. Peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid from Staphylococcus aureus induce tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 6 (IL-6), and IL-10 production in both T cells and monocytes in a human whole blood model. Infect Immun 2000;68:3965-70
Wright SD, Ramos RA, Tobias PS, Ulevitch RJ, Mathison JC. CD14, a receptor for complexes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS binding protein. Science 1990;249:1431-3.
Leturcq DJ, Moriarty AM, Talbott G, et al. Antibodies against CD14 protect primates from endotoxin-induced shock. J Clin Invest 1996;98:1533-8.
Martin GS, Mannino DM, Moss M. The effect of age on the development and outcome of adult sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2006 Jan;34(1):15-21. doi: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000194535.82812.ba. PMID: 16374151.
Falagas ME, Kompoti M. Obesity and infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2006 Jul;6(7):438-46. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70523-0. PMID: 16790384.
Williams MD, Braun LA, Cooper LM, Johnston J, Weiss RV, Qualy RL, Linde-Zwirble W. Hospitalized cancer patients with severe sepsis: analysis of incidence, mortality, and associated costs of care. Crit Care. 2004 Oct;8(5):R291-8. doi: 10.1186/cc2893. Epub 2004 Jul 5. PMID: 15469571; PMCID: PMC1065011.
Netea MG, van der Meer JW. Immunodeficiency and genetic defects of pattern-recognition receptors. N Engl J Med. 2011 Jan 6;364(1):60-70. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1001976. PMID: 21208109.
Prescott HC, Dickson RP, Rogers MA, Langa KM, Iwashyna TJ. Hospitalization Type and Subsequent Severe Sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015 Sep 1;192(5):581-8. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201503-0483OC. PMID: 26016947; PMCID: PMC4595694.
Jones GR, Lowes JA. The systemic inflammatory response syndrome as a predictor of bacteraemia and outcome from sepsis. QJM. 1996 Jul;89(7):515-22. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/89.7.515. PMID: 8759492.
Vincent JL, Bihari DJ, Suter PM, Bruining HA, White J, Nicolas-Chanoin MH, Wolff M, Spencer RC, Hemmer M. The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe. Results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) Study. EPIC International Advisory Committee. JAMA. 1995 Aug 23-30;274(8):639-44. PMID: 7637145.
Krieger JN, Kaiser DL, Wenzel RP. Urinary tract etiology of bloodstream infections in hospitalized patients. J Infect Dis. 1983 Jul;148(1):57-62. doi: 10.1093/infdis/148.1.57. PMID: 6350488.
Bone RC, Fisher CJ Jr, Clemmer TP, Slotman GJ, Metz CA, Balk RA. Sepsis syndrome: a valid clinical entity. Methylprednisolone Severe Sepsis Study Group. Crit Care Med. 1989 May;17(5):389-93. PMID: 2651003.
Shorr AF, Tabak YP, Killian AD, Gupta V, Liu LZ, Kollef MH. Healthcare-associated bloodstream infection: A distinct entity? Insights from a large U.S. database. Crit Care Med. 2006 Oct;34(10):2588-95. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000239121.09533.09. PMID: 16915117.
Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, Bellomo R, Bernard GR, Chiche JD, Coopersmith CM, Hotchkiss RS, Levy MM, Marshall JC, Martin GS, Opal SM, Rubenfeld GD, van der Poll T, Vincent JL, Angus DC. The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):801-10. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.0287. PMID: 26903338; PMCID: PMC4968574.
Lu Y, Zhang H, Teng F, Xia WJ, Sun GX, Wen AQ. Early Goal-Directed Therapy in Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock: A Meta-Analysis and Trial Sequential Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Intensive Care Med. 2018 May;33(5):296-309. doi: 10.1177/0885066616671710. Epub 2016 Oct 22. PMID: 27756870.
Savage RD, Fowler RA, Rishu AH, Bagshaw SM, Cook D, Dodek P, Hall R, Kumar A, Lamontagne F, Lauzier F, Marshall J, Martin CM, McIntyre L, Muscedere J, Reynolds S, Stelfox HT, Daneman N. Pathogens and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles in critically ill patients with bloodstream infections: a descriptive study. CMAJ Open. 2016 Oct 13;4(4):E569-E577. doi: 10.9778/cmajo.20160074. PMID: 28018869; PMCID: PMC5173462.
Monti G, Bradic N, Marzaroli M, Konkayev A, Fominskiy E, Kotani Y, Likhvantsev VV, Momesso E, Nogtev P, Lobreglio R, Redkin I, Toffoletto F, Bruni A, Baiardo Redaelli M, D'Andrea N, Paternoster G, Scandroglio AM, Gallicchio F, Ballestra M, Calabrò MG, Cotoia A, Perone R, Cuffaro R, Montrucchio G, Pota V, Ananiadou S, Lembo R, Musu M, Rauch S, Galbiati C, Pinelli F, Pasin L, Guarracino F, Santarpino G, Agrò FE, Bove T, Corradi F, Forfori F, Longhini F, Cecconi M, Landoni G, Bellomo R, Zangrillo A; MERCY Investigators. Continuous vs Intermittent Meropenem Administration in Critically Ill Patients With Sepsis: The MERCY Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2023 Jul 11;330(2):141-151. doi: 10.1001/jama.2023.10598. PMID: 37326473; PMCID: PMC10276329.
Li A, Ling L, Qin H, Arabi YM, Myatra SN, Egi M, Kim JH, Mat Nor MB, Son DN, Fang WF, Wahyuprajitno B, Hashmi M, Faruq MO, Patjanasoontorn B, Al Bahrani MJ, Shrestha BR, Shrestha U, Nafees KMK, Sann KK, Palo JEM, Mendsaikhan N, Konkayev A, Detleuxay K, Chan YH, Du B, Divatia JV, Koh Y, Gomersall CD, Phua J. Epidemiology, Management, and Outcomes of Sepsis in ICUs among Countries of Differing National Wealth across Asia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2022 Nov 1;206(9):1107-1116. doi: 10.1164/rccm.202112-2743OC. PMID: 35763381.
Kaukonen KM, Bailey M, Suzuki S, Pilcher D, Bellomo R. Mortality related to severe sepsis and septic shock among critically ill patients in Australia and New Zealand, 2000-2012. JAMA. 2014 Apr 2;311(13):1308-16. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.2637. PMID: 24638143.
Epstein L, Dantes R, Magill S, Fiore A. Varying Estimates of Sepsis Mortality Using Death Certificates and Administrative Codes--United States, 1999-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016 Apr 8;65(13):342-5. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6513a2. PMID: 27054476.
Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, Bellomo R, Bernard GR, Chiche JD, Coopersmith CM, Hotchkiss RS, Levy MM, Marshall JC, Martin GS, Opal SM, Rubenfeld GD, van der Poll T, Vincent JL, Angus DC. The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):801-10. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.0287. PMID: 26903338; PMCID: PMC4968574.
Stevenson EK, Rubenstein AR, Radin GT, Wiener RS, Walkey AJ. Two decades of mortality trends among patients with severe sepsis: a comparative meta-analysis*. Crit Care Med. 2014 Mar;42(3):625-31. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000000026. PMID: 24201173; PMCID: PMC4313930.
Kaukonen KM, Bailey M, Suzuki S, Pilcher D, Bellomo R. Mortality related to severe sepsis and septic shock among critically ill patients in Australia and New Zealand, 2000-2012. JAMA. 2014 Apr 2;311(13):1308-16. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.2637. PMID: 24638143.
Sasse KC, Nauenberg E, Long A, Anton B, Tucker HJ, Hu TW. Long-term survival after intensive care unit admission with sepsis. Crit Care Med. 1995 Jun;23(6):1040-7. doi: 10.1097/00003246-199506000-00008. PMID: 7774214.
Referanslar
Rudd KE, Johnson SC, Agesa KM, Shackelford KA, Tsoi D, Kievlan DR, et al. Global, regional, and national sepsis incidence and mortality, 1990-2017: analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet (London, England). 2020;395(10219):200-11.
Funk DJ1, Parrillo JE, Kumar A.Sepsis and septic shock: a history.Crit Care Clin. 2009 Jan;25(1):83-101, viii. doi: 10.1016/j. ccc.2008.12.003.
Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med. 2003 Apr 17;348(16):1546-54. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa022139. PMID: 12700374.
Walkey AJ, Wiener RS, Lindenauer PK. Utilization patterns and outcomes associated with central venous catheter in septic shock: a population-based study. Crit Care Med. 2013 Jun;41(6):1450-7. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31827caa89. PMID: 23507718; PMCID: PMC3780984.
Li A, Ling L, Qin H, Arabi YM, Myatra SN, Egi M, Kim JH, Mat Nor MB, Son DN, Fang WF, Wahyuprajitno B, Hashmi M, Faruq MO, Patjanasoontorn B, Al Bahrani MJ, Shrestha BR, Shrestha U, Nafees KMK, Sann KK, Palo JEM, Mendsaikhan N, Konkayev A, Detleuxay K, Chan YH, Du B, Divatia JV, Koh Y, Gomersall CD, Phua J. Epidemiology, Management, and Outcomes of Sepsis in ICUs among Countries of Differing National Wealth across Asia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2022 Nov 1;206(9):1107-1116. doi: 10.1164/rccm.202112-2743OC. PMID: 35763381.
Danai PA, Sinha S, Moss M, Haber MJ, Martin GS. Seasonal variation in the epidemiology of sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2007 Feb;35(2):410-5. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000253405.17038.43. PMID: 17167351.
Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, Clermont G, Carcillo J, Pinsky MR. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med. 2001 Jul;29(7):1303-10. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00002. PMID: 11445675.
Uslan, D. Z., Crane, S. J., Steckelberg, J. M., Cockerill, F. R., 3rd, St Sauver, J. L., Wilson, W. R., & Baddour, L. M. (2007). Age- and sex-associated trends in bloodstream infection: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Archives of internal medicine, 167(8), 834–839. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.167.8.834
Gupta, S., Sakhuja, A., Kumar, G., McGrath, E., Nanchal, R. S., & Kashani, K. B. (2016). Culture-Negative Severe Sepsis: Nationwide Trends and Outcomes. Chest, 150(6), 1251–1259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2016.08.1460
Gu, X., Zhou, F., Wang, Y., Fan, G., & Cao, B. (2020). Respiratory viral sepsis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment. European respiratory review : an official journal of the European Respiratory Society, 29(157), 200038. https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0038-2020
Ural O. Sepsis fizyopatolojisi ve alternatif tedaviler. Yoğun Bakım Dergisi 2007; 7(1): 173-7.
Janeway CA Jr, Medzhitov R. Introduction: The role of innate immunity in the adaptive immune response. Semin Immunol 1998;10:349-50
Wang JE, Jorgensen PF, Almlof M, et al. Peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid from Staphylococcus aureus induce tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 6 (IL-6), and IL-10 production in both T cells and monocytes in a human whole blood model. Infect Immun 2000;68:3965-70
Wright SD, Ramos RA, Tobias PS, Ulevitch RJ, Mathison JC. CD14, a receptor for complexes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS binding protein. Science 1990;249:1431-3.
Leturcq DJ, Moriarty AM, Talbott G, et al. Antibodies against CD14 protect primates from endotoxin-induced shock. J Clin Invest 1996;98:1533-8.
Martin GS, Mannino DM, Moss M. The effect of age on the development and outcome of adult sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2006 Jan;34(1):15-21. doi: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000194535.82812.ba. PMID: 16374151.
Falagas ME, Kompoti M. Obesity and infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2006 Jul;6(7):438-46. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70523-0. PMID: 16790384.
Williams MD, Braun LA, Cooper LM, Johnston J, Weiss RV, Qualy RL, Linde-Zwirble W. Hospitalized cancer patients with severe sepsis: analysis of incidence, mortality, and associated costs of care. Crit Care. 2004 Oct;8(5):R291-8. doi: 10.1186/cc2893. Epub 2004 Jul 5. PMID: 15469571; PMCID: PMC1065011.
Netea MG, van der Meer JW. Immunodeficiency and genetic defects of pattern-recognition receptors. N Engl J Med. 2011 Jan 6;364(1):60-70. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1001976. PMID: 21208109.
Prescott HC, Dickson RP, Rogers MA, Langa KM, Iwashyna TJ. Hospitalization Type and Subsequent Severe Sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015 Sep 1;192(5):581-8. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201503-0483OC. PMID: 26016947; PMCID: PMC4595694.
Jones GR, Lowes JA. The systemic inflammatory response syndrome as a predictor of bacteraemia and outcome from sepsis. QJM. 1996 Jul;89(7):515-22. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/89.7.515. PMID: 8759492.
Vincent JL, Bihari DJ, Suter PM, Bruining HA, White J, Nicolas-Chanoin MH, Wolff M, Spencer RC, Hemmer M. The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe. Results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) Study. EPIC International Advisory Committee. JAMA. 1995 Aug 23-30;274(8):639-44. PMID: 7637145.
Krieger JN, Kaiser DL, Wenzel RP. Urinary tract etiology of bloodstream infections in hospitalized patients. J Infect Dis. 1983 Jul;148(1):57-62. doi: 10.1093/infdis/148.1.57. PMID: 6350488.
Bone RC, Fisher CJ Jr, Clemmer TP, Slotman GJ, Metz CA, Balk RA. Sepsis syndrome: a valid clinical entity. Methylprednisolone Severe Sepsis Study Group. Crit Care Med. 1989 May;17(5):389-93. PMID: 2651003.
Shorr AF, Tabak YP, Killian AD, Gupta V, Liu LZ, Kollef MH. Healthcare-associated bloodstream infection: A distinct entity? Insights from a large U.S. database. Crit Care Med. 2006 Oct;34(10):2588-95. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000239121.09533.09. PMID: 16915117.
Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, Bellomo R, Bernard GR, Chiche JD, Coopersmith CM, Hotchkiss RS, Levy MM, Marshall JC, Martin GS, Opal SM, Rubenfeld GD, van der Poll T, Vincent JL, Angus DC. The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):801-10. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.0287. PMID: 26903338; PMCID: PMC4968574.
Lu Y, Zhang H, Teng F, Xia WJ, Sun GX, Wen AQ. Early Goal-Directed Therapy in Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock: A Meta-Analysis and Trial Sequential Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Intensive Care Med. 2018 May;33(5):296-309. doi: 10.1177/0885066616671710. Epub 2016 Oct 22. PMID: 27756870.
Savage RD, Fowler RA, Rishu AH, Bagshaw SM, Cook D, Dodek P, Hall R, Kumar A, Lamontagne F, Lauzier F, Marshall J, Martin CM, McIntyre L, Muscedere J, Reynolds S, Stelfox HT, Daneman N. Pathogens and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles in critically ill patients with bloodstream infections: a descriptive study. CMAJ Open. 2016 Oct 13;4(4):E569-E577. doi: 10.9778/cmajo.20160074. PMID: 28018869; PMCID: PMC5173462.
Monti G, Bradic N, Marzaroli M, Konkayev A, Fominskiy E, Kotani Y, Likhvantsev VV, Momesso E, Nogtev P, Lobreglio R, Redkin I, Toffoletto F, Bruni A, Baiardo Redaelli M, D'Andrea N, Paternoster G, Scandroglio AM, Gallicchio F, Ballestra M, Calabrò MG, Cotoia A, Perone R, Cuffaro R, Montrucchio G, Pota V, Ananiadou S, Lembo R, Musu M, Rauch S, Galbiati C, Pinelli F, Pasin L, Guarracino F, Santarpino G, Agrò FE, Bove T, Corradi F, Forfori F, Longhini F, Cecconi M, Landoni G, Bellomo R, Zangrillo A; MERCY Investigators. Continuous vs Intermittent Meropenem Administration in Critically Ill Patients With Sepsis: The MERCY Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2023 Jul 11;330(2):141-151. doi: 10.1001/jama.2023.10598. PMID: 37326473; PMCID: PMC10276329.
Li A, Ling L, Qin H, Arabi YM, Myatra SN, Egi M, Kim JH, Mat Nor MB, Son DN, Fang WF, Wahyuprajitno B, Hashmi M, Faruq MO, Patjanasoontorn B, Al Bahrani MJ, Shrestha BR, Shrestha U, Nafees KMK, Sann KK, Palo JEM, Mendsaikhan N, Konkayev A, Detleuxay K, Chan YH, Du B, Divatia JV, Koh Y, Gomersall CD, Phua J. Epidemiology, Management, and Outcomes of Sepsis in ICUs among Countries of Differing National Wealth across Asia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2022 Nov 1;206(9):1107-1116. doi: 10.1164/rccm.202112-2743OC. PMID: 35763381.
Kaukonen KM, Bailey M, Suzuki S, Pilcher D, Bellomo R. Mortality related to severe sepsis and septic shock among critically ill patients in Australia and New Zealand, 2000-2012. JAMA. 2014 Apr 2;311(13):1308-16. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.2637. PMID: 24638143.
Epstein L, Dantes R, Magill S, Fiore A. Varying Estimates of Sepsis Mortality Using Death Certificates and Administrative Codes--United States, 1999-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016 Apr 8;65(13):342-5. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6513a2. PMID: 27054476.
Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, Bellomo R, Bernard GR, Chiche JD, Coopersmith CM, Hotchkiss RS, Levy MM, Marshall JC, Martin GS, Opal SM, Rubenfeld GD, van der Poll T, Vincent JL, Angus DC. The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):801-10. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.0287. PMID: 26903338; PMCID: PMC4968574.
Stevenson EK, Rubenstein AR, Radin GT, Wiener RS, Walkey AJ. Two decades of mortality trends among patients with severe sepsis: a comparative meta-analysis*. Crit Care Med. 2014 Mar;42(3):625-31. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000000026. PMID: 24201173; PMCID: PMC4313930.
Kaukonen KM, Bailey M, Suzuki S, Pilcher D, Bellomo R. Mortality related to severe sepsis and septic shock among critically ill patients in Australia and New Zealand, 2000-2012. JAMA. 2014 Apr 2;311(13):1308-16. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.2637. PMID: 24638143.
Sasse KC, Nauenberg E, Long A, Anton B, Tucker HJ, Hu TW. Long-term survival after intensive care unit admission with sepsis. Crit Care Med. 1995 Jun;23(6):1040-7. doi: 10.1097/00003246-199506000-00008. PMID: 7774214.
