Derin Ven Trombozu ve Pulmoner Emboli
Özet
Venöz tromboemboli (VTE) tanımlaması derin ven trombozunu (DVT) ve pulmoner tromboemboliyi (PTE) tanımlamaktadır.PTE’nin en sık nedeni alt ekstremitede gelişen DVT’dir. Trombofilaksiye rağmen YBU’da VTE görülebilmektedir. Hem profilakside tem tedavide kullanılan ajanlarla ilgili en büyük endişe antikoagülanlara bağlı kanamadır. Kanama riski belirlenip gerekli hastalara uygun VTE profilaksisinin sağlanması büyük önem taşımaktadır. Yoğun bakım ünitelerinde gelişen VTE’de klasik PTE klinik bulguları görülmeyeceğinden riskli hastalar belirlenip birçok yeni gelişen solunum sıkıntısı ya da hipoksemi durumunda ayırıcı tanıda akılda tutulmalıdır.
Venous thromboembolism (VTE) encompasses both deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE). The most common cause of PTE is DVT originating in the lower extremities. Despite prophylaxis, VTE can still occur in intensive care units (ICUs). The primary concern with both prophylaxis and treatment agents is bleeding associated with anticoagulants. Identifying the bleeding risk and providing appropriate VTE prophylaxis to necessary patients is of great importance. Since classical clinical signs of PTE may not be present in VTE developing in ICUs, it is crucial to identify high-risk patients and consider VTE in the differential diagnosis of many newly emerging respiratory distress or hypoxemia cases.
Referanslar
Rosendaal FR. Causes of venous thrombosis. Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism. 2009:1-26.
White RH. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. Circulation. 2003;107(23_suppl_1):I-4-I-8.
White RH, Romano PS, Zhou H, Rodrigo J, Bargar W. Incidence and time course of thromboembolic outcomes following total hip or knee arthroplasty. Archives of internal medicine. 1998;158(14):1525-31.
Bergqvist D, Benoni G, Björgell O, Fredin H, Hedlundh U, Nicolas S, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin (enoxaparin) as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after total hip replacement. New England Journal of Medicine. 1996;335(10):696-700.
Kroegel C, Reissig A. Principle mechanisms underlying venous thromboembolism: epidemiology, risk factors, pathophysiology and pathogenesis. Respiration. 2003;70(1):7-30.
Gray HW, editor The natural history of venous thromboembolism: impact on ventilation/perfusion scan reporting. Seminars in nuclear medicine; 2002: Elsevier.
Sørensen HT, Mellemkjær L, Olsen JH, Baron JA. Prognosis of cancers associated with venous thromboembolism. New England Journal of Medicine. 2000;343(25):1846-50.
Weingarz L, Schwonberg J, Schindewolf M, Hecking C, Wolf Z, Erbe M, et al. Prevalence of thrombophilia according to age at the first manifestation of venous thromboembolism: results from the MAISTHRO registry. British journal of haematology. 2013;163(5):655-65.
McGonagle D, O'Donnell JS, Sharif K, Emery P, Bridgewood C. Immune mechanisms of pulmonary intravascular coagulopathy in COVID-19 pneumonia. The Lancet Rheumatology. 2020;2(7):e437-e45.
Derneği TT. PULMONER TROMBOEMBOLİZM TANI VE TEDAVİ UZLAŞI RAPORU.
Amin AN, Varker H, Princic N, Lin J, Thompson S, Johnston S. Duration of venous thromboembolism risk across a continuum in medically ill hospitalized patients. Journal of hospital medicine. 2012;7(3):231-8.
Dentali F, Douketis JD, Gianni M, Lim W, Crowther MA. Meta-analysis: anticoagulant prophylaxis to prevent symptomatic venous thromboembolism in hospitalized medical patients. Annals of internal medicine. 2007;146(4):278-88.
Collaboration CT. Effectiveness of intermittent pneumatic compression in reduction of risk of deep vein thrombosis in patients who have had a stroke (CLOTS 3): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. The Lancet. 2013;382(9891):516-24.
Caprini JA. Thrombosis risk assessment as a guide to quality patient care. Disease-a-Month. 2005;51(2-3):70-8.
Golemi I, Adum JPS, Tafur A, Caprini J. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis using the Caprini score. Disease-a-Month. 2019;65(8):249-98.
Forrest JB, Clemens JQ, Finamore P, Leveillee R, Lippert M, Pisters L, et al. AUA Best Practice Statement for the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in patients undergoing urologic surgery. The Journal of urology. 2009;181(3):1170-7.
Geerts WH, Bergqvist D, Pineo GF, Heit JA, Samama CM, Lassen MR, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2008;133(6):381S-453S.
Bauersachs RM. Clinical presentation of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Best practice & research Clinical haematology. 2012;25(3):243-51.
Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, Bueno H, Geersing G-J, Harjola V-P, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS) The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European heart journal. 2020;41(4):543-603.
Le Gal G, Righini M, Sanchez O, Roy P-M, Baba-Ahmed M, Perrier A, et al. A positive compression ultrasonography of the lower limb veins is highly predictive of pulmonary embolism on computed tomography in suspected patients. Thrombosis and haemostasis. 2006;95(06):963-6.
Huisman M, Klok F. Diagnostic management of acute deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2013;11(3):412-22.
Dantzker DR, Wagner PD, Tornabene VW, Alazraki NP, West JB. Gas exchange after pulmonary thromboemoblization in dogs. Circulation research. 1978;42(1):92-103.
Dalen JE, Alpert JS. Natural history of pulmonary embolism. Progress in cardiovascular diseases. 1975;17(4):259-70.
Smulders YM. Pathophysiology and treatment of haemodynamic instability in acute pulmonary embolism: the pivotal role of pulmonary vasoconstriction. Cardiovascular research. 2000;48(1):23-33.
Stein PD, Terrin ML, Hales CA, Palevsky HI, Saltzman HA, Thompson BT, et al. Clinical, laboratory, roentgenographic, and electrocardiographic findings in patients with acute pulmonary embolism and no pre-existing cardiac or pulmonary disease. Chest. 1991;100(3):598-603.
Wolf SJ, McCubbin TR, Feldhaus KM, Faragher JP, Adcock DM. Prospective validation of Wells Criteria in the evaluation of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Annals of emergency medicine. 2004;44(5):503-10.
Lucassen W, Geersing G-J, Erkens PM, Reitsma JB, Moons KG, Büller H, et al. Clinical decision rules for excluding pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis. Annals of internal medicine. 2011;155(7):448-60.
Singh B, Mommer SK, Erwin PJ, Mascarenhas SS, Parsaik AK. Pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria (PERC) in pulmonary embolism—revisited: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Emergency Medicine Journal. 2013;30(9):701-6.
Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, Bueno H, Geersing G, Harjola V, et al. ESC Scientific Document Group. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS). Eur Heart J. 2020;41(4):543-603.
Tapson VF, Friedman O. Systemic thrombolysis for pulmonary embolism: who and how. Techniques in vascular and interventional radiology. 2017;20(3):162-74.
Guyatt GH, Akl EA, Crowther M, Gutterman DD, Schuünemann HJ. Executive summary: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):7S-47S.
Kucher N, Rossi E, De Rosa M, Goldhaber SZ. Massive pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2006;113(4):577-82.
Meyer G, Vicaut E, Danays T, Agnelli G, Becattini C, Beyer-Westendorf J, et al. Fibrinolysis for patients with intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. N engl j med. 2014;370:1402-11.
Members ATF, Torbicki A, Perrier A, Konstantinides S, Agnelli G, Galiè N, et al. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European heart journal. 2008;29(18):2276-315.
Raschke RA, Reilly BM, Guidry JR, Fontana JR, Srinivas S. The weight-based heparin dosing nomogram compared with a standard care nomogram: a randomized controlled trial. Annals of internal medicine. 1993;119(9):874-81.
Hirsh J, Raschke R. Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126(3):188S-203S.
Lo G, Juhl D, Warkentin T, Sigouin C, Eichler P, Greinacher A. Evaluation of pretest clinical score (4 T's) for the diagnosis of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in two clinical settings. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2006;4(4):759-65.
Linkins L-A, Dans AL, Moores LK, Bona R, Davidson BL, Schulman S, et al. Treatment and prevention of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):e495S-e530S.
Lee GM, Arepally GM. Diagnosis and management of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Hematology/Oncology Clinics. 2013;27(3):541-63.
Ginsberg JS. Management of venous thromboembolism. New England journal of medicine. 1996;335(24):1816-29.
Cuker A, Arepally GM, Chong BH, Cines DB, Greinacher A, Gruel Y, et al. American Society of Hematology 2018 guidelines for management of venous thromboembolism: heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood advances. 2018;2(22):3360-92.
Warkentin TE, Levine MN, Hirsh J, Horsewood P, Roberts RS, Gent M, et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or unfractionated heparin. New England Journal of Medicine. 1995;332(20):1330-6.
Hull RD, Garcia DA, Burnett A. Heparin and LMW heparin: Dosing and adverse effects. UpToDate [Internet]. 2018.
Garcia DA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI, Samama MM. Parenteral anticoagulants: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):e24S-e43S.
SO K. Rasyonel Tedavi Yönünden Tıbbi Farmakoloji. Ankara: Hacettepe Taş Kitapçılık 2000.
Morris TA. New synthetic antithrombotic agents for venous thromboembolism: pentasaccharides, direct thrombin inhibitors, direct Xa inhibitors. Clinics in chest medicine. 2010;31(4):707-18.
Ageno W, Gallus AS, Wittkowsky A, Crowther M, Hylek EM, Palareti G. Oral anticoagulant therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):e44S-e88S.
Osinbowale O, Al Malki M, Schade A, Bartholomew JR. An algorithm for managing warfarin resistance. Cleve Clin J Med. 2009;76(12):724-30.
Holbrook A, Schulman S, Witt DM, Vandvik PO, Fish J, Kovacs MJ, et al. Evidence-based management of anticoagulant therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):e152S-e84S.
Scaglione F. New oral anticoagulants: comparative pharmacology with vitamin K antagonists. Clinical pharmacokinetics. 2013;52:69-82.
Investigators EP. Oral rivaroxaban for the treatment of symptomatic pulmonary embolism. New England Journal of Medicine. 2012;366(14):1287-97.
Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Schellong S, Eriksson H, Baanstra D, et al. Extended use of dabigatran, warfarin, or placebo in venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:709-18.
Agnelli G, Becattini C, Meyer G, Muñoz A, Huisman MV, Connors JM, et al. Apixaban for the treatment of venous thromboembolism associated with cancer. New England Journal of Medicine. 2020.
Agnelli G, Buller HR, Cohen A, Curto M, Gallus AS, Johnson M, et al. Oral apixaban for the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism. N engl j med. 2013;369:799-808.
Raskob G, Ageno W, Cohen AT, Brekelmans MP, Grosso MA, Segers A, et al. Extended duration of anticoagulation with edoxaban in patients with venous thromboembolism: a post-hoc analysis of the Hokusai-VTE study. The Lancet Haematology. 2016;3(5):e228-e36.
Investigators H-V. Edoxaban versus warfarin for the treatment of symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1406-15.
Garcia DA, Crowther M, Moreira ME. Management of bleeding in patients receiving direct oral anticoagulants. U: UpToDate, Post TW ur UpToDate [Internet] Waltham, MA: UpToDate. 2018.
Pollack Jr CV, Reilly PA, Eikelboom J, Glund S, Verhamme P, Bernstein RA, et al. Idarucizumab for dabigatran reversal. New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373(6):511-20.
Chornenki NLJ, Um KJ, Mendoza PA, Samienezhad A, Swarup V, Chai-Adisaksopha C, et al. Risk of venous and arterial thrombosis in non-surgical patients receiving systemic tranexamic acid: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Thrombosis research. 2019;179:81-6.
Christos S, Naples R. Anticoagulation reversal and treatment strategies in major bleeding: update 2016. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2016;17(3):264.
Connolly SJ, Crowther M, Eikelboom JW, Gibson CM, Curnutte JT, Lawrence JH, et al. Full study report of andexanet alfa for bleeding associated with factor Xa inhibitors. New England Journal of Medicine. 2019;380(14):1326-35.
Arellano-Rodrigo E. Anticoagulant-reversing agents in the pipeline: focus on ciraparantag. DRUGS OF THE FUTURE. 2019;44(10):779-86.
Streiff MB. Predicting the risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism (VTE). Journal of thrombosis and thrombolysis. 2015;39:353-66.
Streiff MB. Vena caval filters: a comprehensive review. Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology. 2000;95(12):3669-77.
Holly BP, Funaki B, Lessne ML. Inferior vena cava filters: why, who, and for how long? Clinics in chest medicine. 2018;39(3):645-50.
Banerjee TP, Mora JC. The management of pulmonary embolism. Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine. 2020;21(3):139-46.
Referanslar
Rosendaal FR. Causes of venous thrombosis. Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism. 2009:1-26.
White RH. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. Circulation. 2003;107(23_suppl_1):I-4-I-8.
White RH, Romano PS, Zhou H, Rodrigo J, Bargar W. Incidence and time course of thromboembolic outcomes following total hip or knee arthroplasty. Archives of internal medicine. 1998;158(14):1525-31.
Bergqvist D, Benoni G, Björgell O, Fredin H, Hedlundh U, Nicolas S, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin (enoxaparin) as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after total hip replacement. New England Journal of Medicine. 1996;335(10):696-700.
Kroegel C, Reissig A. Principle mechanisms underlying venous thromboembolism: epidemiology, risk factors, pathophysiology and pathogenesis. Respiration. 2003;70(1):7-30.
Gray HW, editor The natural history of venous thromboembolism: impact on ventilation/perfusion scan reporting. Seminars in nuclear medicine; 2002: Elsevier.
Sørensen HT, Mellemkjær L, Olsen JH, Baron JA. Prognosis of cancers associated with venous thromboembolism. New England Journal of Medicine. 2000;343(25):1846-50.
Weingarz L, Schwonberg J, Schindewolf M, Hecking C, Wolf Z, Erbe M, et al. Prevalence of thrombophilia according to age at the first manifestation of venous thromboembolism: results from the MAISTHRO registry. British journal of haematology. 2013;163(5):655-65.
McGonagle D, O'Donnell JS, Sharif K, Emery P, Bridgewood C. Immune mechanisms of pulmonary intravascular coagulopathy in COVID-19 pneumonia. The Lancet Rheumatology. 2020;2(7):e437-e45.
Derneği TT. PULMONER TROMBOEMBOLİZM TANI VE TEDAVİ UZLAŞI RAPORU.
Amin AN, Varker H, Princic N, Lin J, Thompson S, Johnston S. Duration of venous thromboembolism risk across a continuum in medically ill hospitalized patients. Journal of hospital medicine. 2012;7(3):231-8.
Dentali F, Douketis JD, Gianni M, Lim W, Crowther MA. Meta-analysis: anticoagulant prophylaxis to prevent symptomatic venous thromboembolism in hospitalized medical patients. Annals of internal medicine. 2007;146(4):278-88.
Collaboration CT. Effectiveness of intermittent pneumatic compression in reduction of risk of deep vein thrombosis in patients who have had a stroke (CLOTS 3): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. The Lancet. 2013;382(9891):516-24.
Caprini JA. Thrombosis risk assessment as a guide to quality patient care. Disease-a-Month. 2005;51(2-3):70-8.
Golemi I, Adum JPS, Tafur A, Caprini J. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis using the Caprini score. Disease-a-Month. 2019;65(8):249-98.
Forrest JB, Clemens JQ, Finamore P, Leveillee R, Lippert M, Pisters L, et al. AUA Best Practice Statement for the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in patients undergoing urologic surgery. The Journal of urology. 2009;181(3):1170-7.
Geerts WH, Bergqvist D, Pineo GF, Heit JA, Samama CM, Lassen MR, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2008;133(6):381S-453S.
Bauersachs RM. Clinical presentation of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Best practice & research Clinical haematology. 2012;25(3):243-51.
Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, Bueno H, Geersing G-J, Harjola V-P, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS) The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European heart journal. 2020;41(4):543-603.
Le Gal G, Righini M, Sanchez O, Roy P-M, Baba-Ahmed M, Perrier A, et al. A positive compression ultrasonography of the lower limb veins is highly predictive of pulmonary embolism on computed tomography in suspected patients. Thrombosis and haemostasis. 2006;95(06):963-6.
Huisman M, Klok F. Diagnostic management of acute deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2013;11(3):412-22.
Dantzker DR, Wagner PD, Tornabene VW, Alazraki NP, West JB. Gas exchange after pulmonary thromboemoblization in dogs. Circulation research. 1978;42(1):92-103.
Dalen JE, Alpert JS. Natural history of pulmonary embolism. Progress in cardiovascular diseases. 1975;17(4):259-70.
Smulders YM. Pathophysiology and treatment of haemodynamic instability in acute pulmonary embolism: the pivotal role of pulmonary vasoconstriction. Cardiovascular research. 2000;48(1):23-33.
Stein PD, Terrin ML, Hales CA, Palevsky HI, Saltzman HA, Thompson BT, et al. Clinical, laboratory, roentgenographic, and electrocardiographic findings in patients with acute pulmonary embolism and no pre-existing cardiac or pulmonary disease. Chest. 1991;100(3):598-603.
Wolf SJ, McCubbin TR, Feldhaus KM, Faragher JP, Adcock DM. Prospective validation of Wells Criteria in the evaluation of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Annals of emergency medicine. 2004;44(5):503-10.
Lucassen W, Geersing G-J, Erkens PM, Reitsma JB, Moons KG, Büller H, et al. Clinical decision rules for excluding pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis. Annals of internal medicine. 2011;155(7):448-60.
Singh B, Mommer SK, Erwin PJ, Mascarenhas SS, Parsaik AK. Pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria (PERC) in pulmonary embolism—revisited: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Emergency Medicine Journal. 2013;30(9):701-6.
Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, Bueno H, Geersing G, Harjola V, et al. ESC Scientific Document Group. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS). Eur Heart J. 2020;41(4):543-603.
Tapson VF, Friedman O. Systemic thrombolysis for pulmonary embolism: who and how. Techniques in vascular and interventional radiology. 2017;20(3):162-74.
Guyatt GH, Akl EA, Crowther M, Gutterman DD, Schuünemann HJ. Executive summary: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):7S-47S.
Kucher N, Rossi E, De Rosa M, Goldhaber SZ. Massive pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2006;113(4):577-82.
Meyer G, Vicaut E, Danays T, Agnelli G, Becattini C, Beyer-Westendorf J, et al. Fibrinolysis for patients with intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. N engl j med. 2014;370:1402-11.
Members ATF, Torbicki A, Perrier A, Konstantinides S, Agnelli G, Galiè N, et al. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European heart journal. 2008;29(18):2276-315.
Raschke RA, Reilly BM, Guidry JR, Fontana JR, Srinivas S. The weight-based heparin dosing nomogram compared with a standard care nomogram: a randomized controlled trial. Annals of internal medicine. 1993;119(9):874-81.
Hirsh J, Raschke R. Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126(3):188S-203S.
Lo G, Juhl D, Warkentin T, Sigouin C, Eichler P, Greinacher A. Evaluation of pretest clinical score (4 T's) for the diagnosis of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in two clinical settings. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2006;4(4):759-65.
Linkins L-A, Dans AL, Moores LK, Bona R, Davidson BL, Schulman S, et al. Treatment and prevention of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):e495S-e530S.
Lee GM, Arepally GM. Diagnosis and management of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Hematology/Oncology Clinics. 2013;27(3):541-63.
Ginsberg JS. Management of venous thromboembolism. New England journal of medicine. 1996;335(24):1816-29.
Cuker A, Arepally GM, Chong BH, Cines DB, Greinacher A, Gruel Y, et al. American Society of Hematology 2018 guidelines for management of venous thromboembolism: heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood advances. 2018;2(22):3360-92.
Warkentin TE, Levine MN, Hirsh J, Horsewood P, Roberts RS, Gent M, et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or unfractionated heparin. New England Journal of Medicine. 1995;332(20):1330-6.
Hull RD, Garcia DA, Burnett A. Heparin and LMW heparin: Dosing and adverse effects. UpToDate [Internet]. 2018.
Garcia DA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI, Samama MM. Parenteral anticoagulants: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):e24S-e43S.
SO K. Rasyonel Tedavi Yönünden Tıbbi Farmakoloji. Ankara: Hacettepe Taş Kitapçılık 2000.
Morris TA. New synthetic antithrombotic agents for venous thromboembolism: pentasaccharides, direct thrombin inhibitors, direct Xa inhibitors. Clinics in chest medicine. 2010;31(4):707-18.
Ageno W, Gallus AS, Wittkowsky A, Crowther M, Hylek EM, Palareti G. Oral anticoagulant therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):e44S-e88S.
Osinbowale O, Al Malki M, Schade A, Bartholomew JR. An algorithm for managing warfarin resistance. Cleve Clin J Med. 2009;76(12):724-30.
Holbrook A, Schulman S, Witt DM, Vandvik PO, Fish J, Kovacs MJ, et al. Evidence-based management of anticoagulant therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2):e152S-e84S.
Scaglione F. New oral anticoagulants: comparative pharmacology with vitamin K antagonists. Clinical pharmacokinetics. 2013;52:69-82.
Investigators EP. Oral rivaroxaban for the treatment of symptomatic pulmonary embolism. New England Journal of Medicine. 2012;366(14):1287-97.
Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Schellong S, Eriksson H, Baanstra D, et al. Extended use of dabigatran, warfarin, or placebo in venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:709-18.
Agnelli G, Becattini C, Meyer G, Muñoz A, Huisman MV, Connors JM, et al. Apixaban for the treatment of venous thromboembolism associated with cancer. New England Journal of Medicine. 2020.
Agnelli G, Buller HR, Cohen A, Curto M, Gallus AS, Johnson M, et al. Oral apixaban for the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism. N engl j med. 2013;369:799-808.
Raskob G, Ageno W, Cohen AT, Brekelmans MP, Grosso MA, Segers A, et al. Extended duration of anticoagulation with edoxaban in patients with venous thromboembolism: a post-hoc analysis of the Hokusai-VTE study. The Lancet Haematology. 2016;3(5):e228-e36.
Investigators H-V. Edoxaban versus warfarin for the treatment of symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1406-15.
Garcia DA, Crowther M, Moreira ME. Management of bleeding in patients receiving direct oral anticoagulants. U: UpToDate, Post TW ur UpToDate [Internet] Waltham, MA: UpToDate. 2018.
Pollack Jr CV, Reilly PA, Eikelboom J, Glund S, Verhamme P, Bernstein RA, et al. Idarucizumab for dabigatran reversal. New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373(6):511-20.
Chornenki NLJ, Um KJ, Mendoza PA, Samienezhad A, Swarup V, Chai-Adisaksopha C, et al. Risk of venous and arterial thrombosis in non-surgical patients receiving systemic tranexamic acid: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Thrombosis research. 2019;179:81-6.
Christos S, Naples R. Anticoagulation reversal and treatment strategies in major bleeding: update 2016. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2016;17(3):264.
Connolly SJ, Crowther M, Eikelboom JW, Gibson CM, Curnutte JT, Lawrence JH, et al. Full study report of andexanet alfa for bleeding associated with factor Xa inhibitors. New England Journal of Medicine. 2019;380(14):1326-35.
Arellano-Rodrigo E. Anticoagulant-reversing agents in the pipeline: focus on ciraparantag. DRUGS OF THE FUTURE. 2019;44(10):779-86.
Streiff MB. Predicting the risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism (VTE). Journal of thrombosis and thrombolysis. 2015;39:353-66.
Streiff MB. Vena caval filters: a comprehensive review. Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology. 2000;95(12):3669-77.
Holly BP, Funaki B, Lessne ML. Inferior vena cava filters: why, who, and for how long? Clinics in chest medicine. 2018;39(3):645-50.
Banerjee TP, Mora JC. The management of pulmonary embolism. Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine. 2020;21(3):139-46.
