Epilepsinin Etiyolojisi ve Risk Faktörleri
Özet
Epilepsinin etiyolojisinin belirlenmesi, epilepsinin tanısında, prognozun belirlenmesinde ve tedavisinde etkilidir. Etiyoloji, nöbetlerin tekrarlama riskini belirlemek ve dolayısıyla epilepsi tanısı koymak için önemli olabilir. Etiyolojiyi ILAE’ye göre altı kategoriye ayırıyoruz: yapısal, genetik, enfeksiyöz, metabolik, immünolojik ve bilinmeyen etiyolojiler. Ancak nörodejeneratif etiyolojiler epilepside artan öneme sahip olduğu için ayrı bir kategoride incelenebilir. Bu etiyolojiler birbirini dışlayan kategoriler değildir, birçok hastada etiyoloji birden fazla kategoriye girebilir. Genetik faktörler, epilepsi tanılı hastalarda nöbet riski yönünden değişen derecelerde rol oynamaktadır. Etiyolojinin önemi yalnızca yaygınlığa göre değil aynı zamanda klinik öneme göre de belirlenir. Kişiye özel ve hedefe yönelik tedaviler geliştirildikçe etiyolojiler de epilepsi tedavisinde daha da büyük rol oynayacaktır.
Referanslar
Blümcke I, Arzimanoglou A, Beniczky S, Wiebe S. Roadmap for a competency-based educational curriculum in epileptology: report of the Epilepsy Education Task Force of the International League Against Epilepsy. Epileptic Disord 2019; 21(2): 129-40.
Balestrini S, Arzimanoglou A, Blümcke I, Scheffer IE, Wiebe S, Zelano J, Walker MC. The aetiologies of epilepsy. Epileptic Disord. 2021 Feb 1;23(1):1-16.
King MA, Newton MR, Jackson GD, Fitt GJ, Mitchell LA, Silvapulle MJ, et al. Epileptology of the first-seizure presentation: a clinical, electroencephalographic, and magnetic resonance imaging study of 300 consecutive patients. Lancet 199; 352(9133): 1007-11.
Kim LG, Johnson TL, Marson AG, Chadwick DW. Prediction of risk of seizure recurrence after a single seizure and early epilepsy: further results from the MESS trial. Lancet Neurol 200; 5(4): 317-22.
Fisher RS, Acevedo C, Arzimanoglou A, Bogacz A, Cross JH, Elger CE, et al. ILAE official report: a practical clinical definition of epilepsy. Epilepsia 2014; 55(4): 475-82.
Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, Connolly MB, French J, Guilhoto L, et al. ILAE Classification of the Epilepsies Position Paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia 2017; 58(4): 512-21.
Zelano J, Brigo F, Garcia-Patek S. Increased risk of epilepsy in patients registered in the Swedish Dementia Registry. Eur J Neurol 2020; 27(1): 129-35.
Syvertsen M, Nakken KO, Edland A, Hansen G, Hellum MK, Koht J. Prevalence and etiology of epilepsy in a Norwegian county: a population based study. Epilepsia 2015; 56(5): 699-706.
Rajshekhar V, Raghava MV, Prabhakaran V, Oommen A, Muliyil J. Active epilepsy as an index of burden of neurocysticercosis in Vellore district, India. Neurology 2006; 67(12): 2135-9.
Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2010; 51(6): 1069-77.
Balestrini S, Sisodiya SM. Personalized treatment in the epilepsies: challenges and opportunities. Exp Rev Prec Med Drug Dev 2018; 3(4): 237-47.
Symonds JD, Elliott KS, Shetty J, Armstrong M, Brunklaus A, Cutcutache I, Diver LA, Dorris L, Gardiner S, Jollands A, Joss S, Kirkpatrick M, McLellan A, MacLeod S, O'Regan M, Page M, Pilley E, Pilz DT, Stephen E, Stewart K, Ashrafian H, Knight JC, Zuberi SM. Early childhood epilepsies: epidemiology, classification, aetiology, and socio-economic determinants. Brain. 2021 Oct 22;144(9):2879-2891.
Vezzani A, Fujinami RS, White HS, Preux P-M, Blümcke I, Sander JW, et al. Infections, inflammation and epilepsy. Acta Neuropathol 2016; 131(2): 211-34.
Ramantani G, Holthausen H. Epilepsy after cerebral infection: review of the literature and the potential for surgery. Epileptic Disord 2017; 19(2): 117-36.
Campistol J, Plecko B. Treatable newborn and infant seizures due to inborn errors of metabolism. Epileptic Disord 2015; 17(3): 229-42.
Blümcke I, Aronica E, Miyata H, Sarnat HB, Thom M, Roessler K, et al. International recommendation for a comprehensive neuropathologic workup of epilepsy surgery brain tissue: A consensus Task Force report from the ILAE Commission on Diagnostic Methods. Epilepsia 2016; 57(3): 348-58.
Blumcke I, Spreafico R, Haaker G, Coras R, Kobow K, Bien CG, et al. Histopathological Findings in Brain Tissue Obtained during Epilepsy Surgery. N Engl J Med 2017; 377(17): 1648-56.
Blümcke I, Thom M, Aronica E, Armstrong DD, Bartolomei F, Bernasconi A, et al. International consensus classification of hippocampal sclerosis in temporal lobe epilepsy: a Task Force report from the ILAE Commission on Diagnostic Methods. Epilepsia 2013; 54(7): 1315-29.
Bernasconi A, Cendes F, Theodore WH, Gill RS, Koepp MJ, Hogan RE, et al. Recommendations for the use of structural magnetic resonance imaging in the care of patients with epilepsy: A consensus report from the International League Against Epilepsy Neuroimaging Task Force. Epilepsia 2019; 60(6): 1054-68.
Walker MC. Hippocampal sclerosis: causes and prevention. Semin Neurol 2015; 35(3): 193-200.
van Breemen MSM, Wilms EB, Vecht CJ. Epilepsy in patients with brain tumours: epidemiology, mechanisms, and management. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6(5): 421-30.
Blümcke I, Aronica E, Becker A, Capper D, Coras R, Honavar M, et al. Low-grade epilepsy-associated neuroepithelial tumours - the 2016 WHO classification. Nat Rev Neurol 2016; 12(12): 732-40.
Blümcke I, Thom M, Aronica E, Armstrong DD, Vinters HV, Palmini A, et al. The clinicopathologic spectrum of focal cortical dysplasias: a consensus classification proposed by an ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Diagnostic Methods Commission. Epilepsia 2011; 52(1): 158-74.
Guerrini R, Dobyns WB. Malformations of cortical development: clinical features and genetic causes. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13(7): 710-26.
Josephson CB, Leach J-P, Duncan R, Roberts RC, Counsell CE, Al-Shahi Salman R. Seizure risk from cavernous or arteriovenous malformations. Neurology 2011; 76(18): 1548-54.
Thomas-Sohl KA, Vaslow DF, Maria BL. Sturge-Weber syndrome: a review. Pediatric Neurology 2004; 30(5): 303-10.
Steinhäuser C, Grunnet M, Carmignoto G. Crucial role of astrocytes in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuroscience 2016; 323: 157-69.
Christensen J, Pedersen MG, Pedersen CB, Sidenius P, Olsen J, Vestergaard M. Long-term risk of epilepsy after traumatic brain injury in children and young adults: a population-based cohort study. Lancet 2009; 373(9669): 1105-10.
Tubi MA, Lutkenhoff E, Blanco MB, McArthur D, Villablanca P, Ellingson B, et al. Early seizures and temporal lobe trauma predict post-traumatic epilepsy: A longitudinal study. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 123: 115-21.
Carvill GL, Weckhuysen S, McMahon JM, Hartmann C, Moller RS, Hjalgrim H, et al. GABRA1 and STXBP1: novel genetic causes of Dravet syndrome. Neurology 2014; 82(14): 1245-53.
Zhang Y-H, Burgess R, Malone JP, Glubb GC, Helbig KL, Vadlamudi L, et al. Genetic epilepsy with febrile seizures plus: Refining the spectrum. Neurology 2017; 89(12): 1210-9.
Harkin LA, McMahon JM, Iona X, Dibbens L, Pelekanos JT, Zuberi SM, et al. The spectrum of SCN1A-related infantile epileptic encephalopathies. Brain 2007; 130(3): 843-52.
Marini C, Scheffer IE, Nabbout R, Suls A, De Jonghe P, Zara F, et al. The genetics of Dravet syndrome. Epilepsia 2011; 52(2): 24-9.
Sadleir LG, Mountier EI, Gill D, Davis S, Joshi C, DeVile C, et al. Not all SCN1A epileptic encephalopathies are Dravet syndrome: Early profound Thr226Met phenotype. Neurology 2017; 89(10): 1035-42.
McTague A, Howell KB, Cross JH, Kurian MA, Scheffer IE. The genetic landscape of the epileptic encephalopathies of infancy and childhood. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15(3): 304-16.
Balestrini S, Sisodiya SM. Treatment of Epileptic Encephalopathies. Curr Pharm Des 2017; 23(37): 5667-90.
Abou-Khalil B, Auce P, Avbersek A, Bahlo M, Balding DJ, Bast T, et al. Genome-wide mega-analysis identifies 16 loci and highlights diverse biological mechanisms in the common epilepsies. Nat Commun 2018; 9(1): 5269.
Richards S, Aziz N, Bale S, Bick D, Das S, Gastier-Foster J, et al. Standards and guidelines for the interpretation of sequence variants: a joint consensus recommendation of the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the Association for Molecular Pathology. Genet Med 2015; 17(5): 405-24.
Street JS, Qiu Y, Lignani G. Are Genetic Therapies for Epilepsy Ready for the Clinic? Epilepsy Curr. 2023 May 19;23(4):245-250.
Hussein AS, Shafran SD. Acute bacterial meningitis in adults. a 12-year review. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000; 79(6): 360-8.
Preux P-M, Druet-Cabanac M. Epidemiology and aetiology of epilepsy in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Neurol 2005; 4(1): 21-31.
Garcia HH, Modi M. Helminthic parasites and seizures. Epilepsia 2008; 49(s6): 25-32.
Michael BD, Solomon T. Seizures and encephalitis: Clinical features, management, and potential pathophysiologic mechanisms. Epilepsia 2012; 53(s4): 63-71.
Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Beghi E, Nicolosi A, Kurland LT. The risk of unprovoked seizures after encephalitis and meningitis. Neurology 1988; 38(9): 1407-10.
Carpio A, Chang M, Zhang H, Romo ML, Jaramillo A, Hauser WA, et al. Exploring the complex associations over time among albendazole treatment, cyst evolution, and seizure outcomes in neurocysticercosis. Epilepsia 2019; 60(9): 1820-8.
Angel MJ, Young GB. Metabolic encephalopathies. Neurol Clin 2011; 29(4): 837-82.
Sander JW, Hart YM, Johnson AL, Shorvon SD. National General Practice Study of Epilepsy: newly diagnosed epileptic seizures in a general population. Lancet 1990; 336(8726): 1267-71.
Rahman S, Footitt EJ, Varadkar S, Clayton PT. Inborn errors of metabolism causing epilepsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55(1): 23-36.
Wolf NI, Bast T, Surtees R. Epilepsy in inborn errors of metabolism. Epileptic Disord 2005; 7(2): 67-81.
Dulac O, Plecko B, Gataullina S, Wolf NI. Occasional seizures, epilepsy, and inborn errors of metabolism. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13(7): 727-39.
Stockler S, Plecko B, Gospe SM, Coulter-Mackie M, Connolly M, van Karnebeek C, et al. Pyridoxine dependent epilepsy and antiquitin deficiency: Clinical and molecular characteristics and recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Mol Genet Metab 2011; 104(1): 48-60.
Gras D, Roze E, Caillet S, Méneret A, Doummar D, Billette de Villemeur T, et al. GLUT1 deficiency syndrome: an update. Rev Neurol (Paris). 170(2): 91-9.
Häberle J, Burlina A, Chakrapani A, Dixon M, Karall D, Lindner M, et al. Suggested guidelines for the diagnosis and management of urea cycle disorders: First revision. J Inherit Metab Dis 2019; 42(6): 1192-230.
Milone M, Massie R. Polymerase gamma 1 mutations: clinical correlations. Neurologist 2010; 16(2): 84-91.
Vezzani A, Friedman A. Brain inflammation as a biomarker in epilepsy. Biomark Med 2011; 5(5): 607-14.
Wang L, Wang F-S, Gershwin ME. Human autoimmune diseases: a comprehensive update. J Int Med 2015; 278(4): 369-95.
Devinsky O, Schein A, Najjar S. Epilepsy associated with systemic autoimmune disorders. Epilepsy Curr 2013; 13(2): 62-8.
Geis C, Planagumà J, Carreño M, Graus F, Dalmau J. Autoimmune seizures and epilepsy. J Clin Invest 2019; 129(3): 926-40.
Serafini A, Lukas RV, VanHaerents S, Warnke P, Tao JX, Rose S, et al. Paraneoplastic epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2016; 61: 51-8.
Gaspard N, Hirsch LJ, Sculier C, Loddenkemper T, van Baalen A, Lancrenon J, et al. New-onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE) and febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES): State of the art and perspectives. Epilepsia 2018; 59(4): 745-52.
Varadkar S, Bien CG, Kruse CA, Jensen FE, Bauer J, Pardo CA, et al. Rasmussen’s encephalitis: clinical features, pathobiology, and treatment advances. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13(2): 195-205.
Friedman D, Honig LS, Scarmeas N. Seizures and epilepsy in Alzheimer’s disease. CNS Neurosci Ther 2012; 18(4): 285-94.
Gruntz K, Bloechliger M, Becker C, Jick SS, Fuhr P, Meier CR, et al. Parkinson disease and the risk of epileptic seizures. Ann Neurol 2018; 83(2): 363-74.
Möller JC, Hamer HM, Oertel WH, Rosenow F. Late-onset myoclonic epilepsy in Down’s syndrome (LOMEDS). Seizure 2002; 11(A): 303-5.
Asadi-Pooya AA, Hojabri K. Risk factors for childhood epilepsy: a case-control study. Epilepsy Behav. 2005 Mar;6(2):203-6.
Asadi-Pooya AA, Hojabri K. Risk factors for childhood epilepsy: a case-control study. Epilepsy Behav. 2005 Mar;6(2):203-6.
Canpolat M, Kumandas S, Poyrazoglu HG, Gumus H, Elmali F, Per H. Prevalence and risk factors of epilepsy among school children in Kayseri City Center, an urban area in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Seizure. 2014 Oct;23(9):708-16.
Ziobro J, Shellhaas RA. Neonatal Seizures: Diagnosis, Etiologies, and Management. Semin Neurol. 2020 Apr;40(2):246-256.
Vestergaard M, Pedersen CB, Sidenius P, Olsen J, Christensen J. The long-term risk of epilepsy after febrile seizures in susceptible subgroups. Am J Epidemiol. 2007 Apr 15;165(8):911-8.
Referanslar
Blümcke I, Arzimanoglou A, Beniczky S, Wiebe S. Roadmap for a competency-based educational curriculum in epileptology: report of the Epilepsy Education Task Force of the International League Against Epilepsy. Epileptic Disord 2019; 21(2): 129-40.
Balestrini S, Arzimanoglou A, Blümcke I, Scheffer IE, Wiebe S, Zelano J, Walker MC. The aetiologies of epilepsy. Epileptic Disord. 2021 Feb 1;23(1):1-16.
King MA, Newton MR, Jackson GD, Fitt GJ, Mitchell LA, Silvapulle MJ, et al. Epileptology of the first-seizure presentation: a clinical, electroencephalographic, and magnetic resonance imaging study of 300 consecutive patients. Lancet 199; 352(9133): 1007-11.
Kim LG, Johnson TL, Marson AG, Chadwick DW. Prediction of risk of seizure recurrence after a single seizure and early epilepsy: further results from the MESS trial. Lancet Neurol 200; 5(4): 317-22.
Fisher RS, Acevedo C, Arzimanoglou A, Bogacz A, Cross JH, Elger CE, et al. ILAE official report: a practical clinical definition of epilepsy. Epilepsia 2014; 55(4): 475-82.
Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, Connolly MB, French J, Guilhoto L, et al. ILAE Classification of the Epilepsies Position Paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia 2017; 58(4): 512-21.
Zelano J, Brigo F, Garcia-Patek S. Increased risk of epilepsy in patients registered in the Swedish Dementia Registry. Eur J Neurol 2020; 27(1): 129-35.
Syvertsen M, Nakken KO, Edland A, Hansen G, Hellum MK, Koht J. Prevalence and etiology of epilepsy in a Norwegian county: a population based study. Epilepsia 2015; 56(5): 699-706.
Rajshekhar V, Raghava MV, Prabhakaran V, Oommen A, Muliyil J. Active epilepsy as an index of burden of neurocysticercosis in Vellore district, India. Neurology 2006; 67(12): 2135-9.
Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2010; 51(6): 1069-77.
Balestrini S, Sisodiya SM. Personalized treatment in the epilepsies: challenges and opportunities. Exp Rev Prec Med Drug Dev 2018; 3(4): 237-47.
Symonds JD, Elliott KS, Shetty J, Armstrong M, Brunklaus A, Cutcutache I, Diver LA, Dorris L, Gardiner S, Jollands A, Joss S, Kirkpatrick M, McLellan A, MacLeod S, O'Regan M, Page M, Pilley E, Pilz DT, Stephen E, Stewart K, Ashrafian H, Knight JC, Zuberi SM. Early childhood epilepsies: epidemiology, classification, aetiology, and socio-economic determinants. Brain. 2021 Oct 22;144(9):2879-2891.
Vezzani A, Fujinami RS, White HS, Preux P-M, Blümcke I, Sander JW, et al. Infections, inflammation and epilepsy. Acta Neuropathol 2016; 131(2): 211-34.
Ramantani G, Holthausen H. Epilepsy after cerebral infection: review of the literature and the potential for surgery. Epileptic Disord 2017; 19(2): 117-36.
Campistol J, Plecko B. Treatable newborn and infant seizures due to inborn errors of metabolism. Epileptic Disord 2015; 17(3): 229-42.
Blümcke I, Aronica E, Miyata H, Sarnat HB, Thom M, Roessler K, et al. International recommendation for a comprehensive neuropathologic workup of epilepsy surgery brain tissue: A consensus Task Force report from the ILAE Commission on Diagnostic Methods. Epilepsia 2016; 57(3): 348-58.
Blumcke I, Spreafico R, Haaker G, Coras R, Kobow K, Bien CG, et al. Histopathological Findings in Brain Tissue Obtained during Epilepsy Surgery. N Engl J Med 2017; 377(17): 1648-56.
Blümcke I, Thom M, Aronica E, Armstrong DD, Bartolomei F, Bernasconi A, et al. International consensus classification of hippocampal sclerosis in temporal lobe epilepsy: a Task Force report from the ILAE Commission on Diagnostic Methods. Epilepsia 2013; 54(7): 1315-29.
Bernasconi A, Cendes F, Theodore WH, Gill RS, Koepp MJ, Hogan RE, et al. Recommendations for the use of structural magnetic resonance imaging in the care of patients with epilepsy: A consensus report from the International League Against Epilepsy Neuroimaging Task Force. Epilepsia 2019; 60(6): 1054-68.
Walker MC. Hippocampal sclerosis: causes and prevention. Semin Neurol 2015; 35(3): 193-200.
van Breemen MSM, Wilms EB, Vecht CJ. Epilepsy in patients with brain tumours: epidemiology, mechanisms, and management. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6(5): 421-30.
Blümcke I, Aronica E, Becker A, Capper D, Coras R, Honavar M, et al. Low-grade epilepsy-associated neuroepithelial tumours - the 2016 WHO classification. Nat Rev Neurol 2016; 12(12): 732-40.
Blümcke I, Thom M, Aronica E, Armstrong DD, Vinters HV, Palmini A, et al. The clinicopathologic spectrum of focal cortical dysplasias: a consensus classification proposed by an ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Diagnostic Methods Commission. Epilepsia 2011; 52(1): 158-74.
Guerrini R, Dobyns WB. Malformations of cortical development: clinical features and genetic causes. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13(7): 710-26.
Josephson CB, Leach J-P, Duncan R, Roberts RC, Counsell CE, Al-Shahi Salman R. Seizure risk from cavernous or arteriovenous malformations. Neurology 2011; 76(18): 1548-54.
Thomas-Sohl KA, Vaslow DF, Maria BL. Sturge-Weber syndrome: a review. Pediatric Neurology 2004; 30(5): 303-10.
Steinhäuser C, Grunnet M, Carmignoto G. Crucial role of astrocytes in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuroscience 2016; 323: 157-69.
Christensen J, Pedersen MG, Pedersen CB, Sidenius P, Olsen J, Vestergaard M. Long-term risk of epilepsy after traumatic brain injury in children and young adults: a population-based cohort study. Lancet 2009; 373(9669): 1105-10.
Tubi MA, Lutkenhoff E, Blanco MB, McArthur D, Villablanca P, Ellingson B, et al. Early seizures and temporal lobe trauma predict post-traumatic epilepsy: A longitudinal study. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 123: 115-21.
Carvill GL, Weckhuysen S, McMahon JM, Hartmann C, Moller RS, Hjalgrim H, et al. GABRA1 and STXBP1: novel genetic causes of Dravet syndrome. Neurology 2014; 82(14): 1245-53.
Zhang Y-H, Burgess R, Malone JP, Glubb GC, Helbig KL, Vadlamudi L, et al. Genetic epilepsy with febrile seizures plus: Refining the spectrum. Neurology 2017; 89(12): 1210-9.
Harkin LA, McMahon JM, Iona X, Dibbens L, Pelekanos JT, Zuberi SM, et al. The spectrum of SCN1A-related infantile epileptic encephalopathies. Brain 2007; 130(3): 843-52.
Marini C, Scheffer IE, Nabbout R, Suls A, De Jonghe P, Zara F, et al. The genetics of Dravet syndrome. Epilepsia 2011; 52(2): 24-9.
Sadleir LG, Mountier EI, Gill D, Davis S, Joshi C, DeVile C, et al. Not all SCN1A epileptic encephalopathies are Dravet syndrome: Early profound Thr226Met phenotype. Neurology 2017; 89(10): 1035-42.
McTague A, Howell KB, Cross JH, Kurian MA, Scheffer IE. The genetic landscape of the epileptic encephalopathies of infancy and childhood. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15(3): 304-16.
Balestrini S, Sisodiya SM. Treatment of Epileptic Encephalopathies. Curr Pharm Des 2017; 23(37): 5667-90.
Abou-Khalil B, Auce P, Avbersek A, Bahlo M, Balding DJ, Bast T, et al. Genome-wide mega-analysis identifies 16 loci and highlights diverse biological mechanisms in the common epilepsies. Nat Commun 2018; 9(1): 5269.
Richards S, Aziz N, Bale S, Bick D, Das S, Gastier-Foster J, et al. Standards and guidelines for the interpretation of sequence variants: a joint consensus recommendation of the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the Association for Molecular Pathology. Genet Med 2015; 17(5): 405-24.
Street JS, Qiu Y, Lignani G. Are Genetic Therapies for Epilepsy Ready for the Clinic? Epilepsy Curr. 2023 May 19;23(4):245-250.
Hussein AS, Shafran SD. Acute bacterial meningitis in adults. a 12-year review. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000; 79(6): 360-8.
Preux P-M, Druet-Cabanac M. Epidemiology and aetiology of epilepsy in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Neurol 2005; 4(1): 21-31.
Garcia HH, Modi M. Helminthic parasites and seizures. Epilepsia 2008; 49(s6): 25-32.
Michael BD, Solomon T. Seizures and encephalitis: Clinical features, management, and potential pathophysiologic mechanisms. Epilepsia 2012; 53(s4): 63-71.
Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Beghi E, Nicolosi A, Kurland LT. The risk of unprovoked seizures after encephalitis and meningitis. Neurology 1988; 38(9): 1407-10.
Carpio A, Chang M, Zhang H, Romo ML, Jaramillo A, Hauser WA, et al. Exploring the complex associations over time among albendazole treatment, cyst evolution, and seizure outcomes in neurocysticercosis. Epilepsia 2019; 60(9): 1820-8.
Angel MJ, Young GB. Metabolic encephalopathies. Neurol Clin 2011; 29(4): 837-82.
Sander JW, Hart YM, Johnson AL, Shorvon SD. National General Practice Study of Epilepsy: newly diagnosed epileptic seizures in a general population. Lancet 1990; 336(8726): 1267-71.
Rahman S, Footitt EJ, Varadkar S, Clayton PT. Inborn errors of metabolism causing epilepsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55(1): 23-36.
Wolf NI, Bast T, Surtees R. Epilepsy in inborn errors of metabolism. Epileptic Disord 2005; 7(2): 67-81.
Dulac O, Plecko B, Gataullina S, Wolf NI. Occasional seizures, epilepsy, and inborn errors of metabolism. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13(7): 727-39.
Stockler S, Plecko B, Gospe SM, Coulter-Mackie M, Connolly M, van Karnebeek C, et al. Pyridoxine dependent epilepsy and antiquitin deficiency: Clinical and molecular characteristics and recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Mol Genet Metab 2011; 104(1): 48-60.
Gras D, Roze E, Caillet S, Méneret A, Doummar D, Billette de Villemeur T, et al. GLUT1 deficiency syndrome: an update. Rev Neurol (Paris). 170(2): 91-9.
Häberle J, Burlina A, Chakrapani A, Dixon M, Karall D, Lindner M, et al. Suggested guidelines for the diagnosis and management of urea cycle disorders: First revision. J Inherit Metab Dis 2019; 42(6): 1192-230.
Milone M, Massie R. Polymerase gamma 1 mutations: clinical correlations. Neurologist 2010; 16(2): 84-91.
Vezzani A, Friedman A. Brain inflammation as a biomarker in epilepsy. Biomark Med 2011; 5(5): 607-14.
Wang L, Wang F-S, Gershwin ME. Human autoimmune diseases: a comprehensive update. J Int Med 2015; 278(4): 369-95.
Devinsky O, Schein A, Najjar S. Epilepsy associated with systemic autoimmune disorders. Epilepsy Curr 2013; 13(2): 62-8.
Geis C, Planagumà J, Carreño M, Graus F, Dalmau J. Autoimmune seizures and epilepsy. J Clin Invest 2019; 129(3): 926-40.
Serafini A, Lukas RV, VanHaerents S, Warnke P, Tao JX, Rose S, et al. Paraneoplastic epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2016; 61: 51-8.
Gaspard N, Hirsch LJ, Sculier C, Loddenkemper T, van Baalen A, Lancrenon J, et al. New-onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE) and febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES): State of the art and perspectives. Epilepsia 2018; 59(4): 745-52.
Varadkar S, Bien CG, Kruse CA, Jensen FE, Bauer J, Pardo CA, et al. Rasmussen’s encephalitis: clinical features, pathobiology, and treatment advances. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13(2): 195-205.
Friedman D, Honig LS, Scarmeas N. Seizures and epilepsy in Alzheimer’s disease. CNS Neurosci Ther 2012; 18(4): 285-94.
Gruntz K, Bloechliger M, Becker C, Jick SS, Fuhr P, Meier CR, et al. Parkinson disease and the risk of epileptic seizures. Ann Neurol 2018; 83(2): 363-74.
Möller JC, Hamer HM, Oertel WH, Rosenow F. Late-onset myoclonic epilepsy in Down’s syndrome (LOMEDS). Seizure 2002; 11(A): 303-5.
Asadi-Pooya AA, Hojabri K. Risk factors for childhood epilepsy: a case-control study. Epilepsy Behav. 2005 Mar;6(2):203-6.
Asadi-Pooya AA, Hojabri K. Risk factors for childhood epilepsy: a case-control study. Epilepsy Behav. 2005 Mar;6(2):203-6.
Canpolat M, Kumandas S, Poyrazoglu HG, Gumus H, Elmali F, Per H. Prevalence and risk factors of epilepsy among school children in Kayseri City Center, an urban area in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Seizure. 2014 Oct;23(9):708-16.
Ziobro J, Shellhaas RA. Neonatal Seizures: Diagnosis, Etiologies, and Management. Semin Neurol. 2020 Apr;40(2):246-256.
Vestergaard M, Pedersen CB, Sidenius P, Olsen J, Christensen J. The long-term risk of epilepsy after febrile seizures in susceptible subgroups. Am J Epidemiol. 2007 Apr 15;165(8):911-8.
