Direnç Antrenmanlarına Uyum Yanıtları
Özet
Vücudun egzersize yanıt verdiği fizyolojik süreç adaptasyon veya uyum olarak tanımlanır. Her fizyolojik değişken, belirli egzersiz programına spesifik bir şekilde adapte olur. Farklı yüklenmelerde oluşan uyum yanıtlarının bilinmesi, arzu edilen performans gelişimini sağlayacak özel antrenmanların planlanmasında önem kazanır. Kuvvet veya ağırlık antrenmanı olarak da bilinen direnç antrenmanları, kasın maksimal kuvvetini, gücünü, dayanıklılığını geliştirmek ve kitlesini arttırmak için en etkili egzersiz metodu olarak tanımlanır. Antrenmanın şiddeti, antrenmanın kapsamı, antrenmanın sıklığı, kasın kasılma tipi, egzersiz seçimi, egzersizlerin sıralaması, setler arası dinlenme süreleri, tekrarlama hızı gibi akut program değişkenlerinde yapılacak manipülasyonlar ile istenilen adaptasyonlar sağlanabilmektedir. Kas gücü ve kuvvetindeki artış, nöral aktivasyonda gelişmelere, kasın kesit alanının artmasına ve kas yapısında ve morfolojisindeki değişikliklere atfedilmektedir.
Referanslar
Allen, D. G., Whitehead, N. P., & Yeung, E. W. (2005). Mechanisms of stretch‐induced muscle damage in normal and dystrophic muscle: role of ionic changes. The Journal of physiology, 567(3), 723-735.
Andersen, J. L., & Aagaard, P. (2000). Myosin heavy chain IIX overshoot in human skeletal muscle. Muscle & Nerve: Official Journal of the American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine, 23(7), 1095-1104.
Bickel, C. S., Slade, J., Mahoney, E. D., et al. (2005). Time course of molecular responses of human skeletal muscle to acute bouts of resistance exercise. Journal of applied physiology, 98(2), 482-488.
Biolo, G., Tipton, K. D., Klein, S., et al. (1997). An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 273(1), E122-E129.
Bird, S. P., Tarpenning, K. M., & Marino, F. E. (2005). Designing resistance training programmes to enhance muscular fitness: a review of the acute programme variables. Sports medicine, 35, 841-851.
Burke, R.E., Levine, D.N., Salcman, M., et al. (1974). Motor units in cat soleus muscle: Physiological, histochemical and morphological characteristics. Journal of Applied Physiology 238: 503-514.
Campos, G. E., Luecke, T. J., Wendeln, H. K., et al. (2002). Muscular adaptations in response to three different resistance-training regimens: specificity of repetition maximum training zones. European journal of applied physiology, 88, 50-60.
Carroll, T.J., Riek, S., & Carson, R.G. (2001). Neural adaptations to resistance training implications for movement control. Sports Medicine, 31: 829-840.
Cormie, P., McGuigan, M. R., & Newton, R. U. (2011). Developing maximal neuromuscular power: Part 1—Biological basis of maximal power production. Sports medicine, 41, 17-38.
Conroy, B. P., Kraemer, W. J., Maresh, C. M., et al. (1992). Adaptive responses of bone to physical activity. Medicine Exercise Nutrition Health, 1, 64-74.
Deschenes, M. R., & Kraemer, W. J. (2002). Performance and physiologic adaptations to resistance training. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 81(11), S3-S16.
Felici, F., Rosponi, A., Sbriccoli, P., et al. (2001). Linear and non-linear analysis of surface electromyograms in weightlifters. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 84: 337-342.
Fleck, S. J., & Kraemer, W. (2014). Designing resistance training programs, 4E. Human Kinetics.
Folland, J.P., & Williams, A.G. (2007). The adaptations to strength training: Morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength. Sports Medicine, 37: 145-168.
Goldspink, G. (1992). Cellular and molecular aspects of adaptation in skeletal muscle. In Strength and power in sport, edited by P.V. Komi, 211-229. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
Häkkinen, K., Alen, M., Kallinen, M., et al. (2000). Neuromuscular adaptation during prolonged strength training, detraining and re-strength-training in middle-aged and elderly people. European journal of applied physiology, 83, 51-62.
Häussinger, D. (1996). The role of cellular hydration in the regulation of cell function. Biochemical Journal, 313(Pt 3), 697.
Hawke, T. J., & Garry, D. J. (2001). Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology. Journal of applied physiology, 91(2), 534-551.
Hill, M., & Goldspink, G. (2003). Expression and splicing of the insulin‐like growth factor gene in rodent muscle is associated with muscle satellite (stem) cell activation following local tissue damage. The Journal of physiology, 549(2), 409-418.
Hodson-Tole, E.F., & Wakeling, J.M. 2009. Motor unit recruitment for dynamic tasks: Current understanding and future directions. Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology, 179: 57-66.
Hornberger, T. A., Chu, W. K., Mak, Y. W., et al. (2006). The role of phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid in the mechanical activation of mTOR signaling in skeletal muscle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(12), 4741-4746.
Howe, L. P., Read, P., & Waldron, M. (2017). Muscle hypertrophy: A narrative review on training principles for increasing muscle mass. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 39(5), 72-81.
Kadi, F., Eriksson, A., Holmner, S., et al. (1999). Cellular adaptation of the trapezius muscle in strength-trained athletes. Histochemistry and cell biology, 111, 189-195.
Kanehisa, H., Ikegawa, S., & Fukunaga, T. (1998). Body composition and cross‐sectional areas of limb lean tissues in Olympic weight lifters. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 8(5), 271-278.
Kerr, D., Ackland, T., Maslen, B., et al. (2001). Resistance training over 2 years increases bone mass in calcium‐replete postmenopausal women. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 16(1), 175-181.
Kraemer, W. J., Fleck, S. J., Maresh, C. M., et al. (1999). Acute hormonal responses to a single bout of heavy resistance exercise in trained power lifters and untrained men. Canadian journal of applied physiology, 24(6), 524-537.
Kraemer, W. J., Ratamess, N. A., & French, D. N. (2002). Resistance training for health and performance. Current sports medicine reports, 1, 165-171.
Kraemer, W. J., Volek, J. S., Bush, J. A., et al. (1998). Hormonal responses to consecutive days of heavy-resistance exercise with or without nutritional supplementation. Journal of Applied Physiology, 85(4), 1544-1555.
Layne, J. E., & Nelson, M. E. (1999). The effects of progressive resistance training on bone density: a review. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 31(1), 25-30.
Loehrke, B., Renne, U., Viergutz, T., et al. (1996). Effects of stress-related signal molecules on cells associated with muscle tissue. Analytical and quantitative cytology and histology, 18(5), 383-388.
Low, S. Y., Rennie, M. J., & Taylor, P. M. (1997). Signaling elements involved in amino acid transport responses to altered muscle cell volume. The FASEB journal, 11(13), 1111-1117.
Lynn, R., & Morgan, D. L. (1994). Decline running produces more sarcomeres in rat vastus intermedius muscle fibers than does incline running. Journal of applied physiology, 77(3), 1439-1444.
Mattocks, K. T., Buckner, S. L., Jessee, M. B., et al. (2017). Practicing the Test Produces Strength Equivalent to Higher Volume Training. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 49(9), 1945-1954.
McCall, G. E., Byrnes, W. C., Fleck, S. J., et al. (1999). Acute and chronic hormonal responses to resistance training designed to promote muscle hypertrophy. Canadian Journal of applied physiology, 24(1), 96-107.
Owino, V., Yang, S. Y., & Goldspink, G. (2001). Age-related loss of skeletal muscle function and the inability to express the autocrine form of insulin-like growth factor-1 (MGF) in response to mechanical overload. FEBS letters, 505(2), 259-263.
Paul, A. C., & Rosenthal, N. (2002). Different modes of hypertrophy in skeletal muscle fibers. The Journal of cell biology, 156(4), 751-760.
Pette, D., & Staron, R.S. (2001). Transitions of muscle fiber phenotypic profiles. Histochemistry and Cell Biology, 115: 359-372.
Phillips, S. M., Tipton, K. D., Aarsland, A. S. L. E., et al. (1997). Mixed muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in humans. American journal of physiology-endocrinology and metabolism, 273(1), E99-E107.
Phillips, S. M., Tipton, K. D., Ferrando, A. A., et al. (1999). Resistance training reduces the acute exercise-induced increase in muscle protein turnover. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 39(1), E118–E124.
Rønnestad, B. R., Hansen, E. A., & Raastad, T. (2012). Strength training affects tendon cross-sectional area and freely chosen cadence differently in noncyclists and well-trained cyclists. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(1), 158-166.
Sale, D.G. (1992). Neural adaptations to strength training. In Strength and power in sport, edited by P.V. Komi, 249-265. Boston: Blackwell Scientific.
Sara, V. R., & Hall, K. (1990). Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins. Physiological Reviews, 70(3), 591-614.
Schoenfeld, B. J. (2010). The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(10), 2857-2872.
Schoenfeld, B. J., Contreras, B., Tiryaki-Sonmez, G., et al. (2015). Regional differences in muscle activation during hamstrings exercise. The Journal of strength & conditioning research, 29(1), 159-164.
Shinohara, M., Kouzaki, M., Yoshihisa, et al. (1997). Efficacy of tourniquet ischemia for strength training with low resistance. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 77, 189-191.
Shoepe, T. C., Stelzer, J. E., Garner, D. P., et al. (2003). Functional adaptability of muscle fibers to long-term resistance exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35(6), 944-951.
Schott, J., McCully, K., & Rutherford, O. M. (1995). The role of metabolites in strength training: II. Short versus long isometric contractions. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 71, 337-341.
Staron, R. S., Karapondo, D. L., Kraemer, W. J., et al. (1994). Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women. Journal of applied physiology, 76(3), 1247-1255.
Stone, M.H. (1992). Connective tissue and bone response to strength training. In Strength and power training in sport, edited by P.V. Komi, 279-290. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
Tarpenning, K. M., Wiswell, R. A., Hawkins, S. A., et al. (2001). Influence of weight training exercise and modification of hormonal response on skeletal muscle growth. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 4(4), 431-446.
Toigo, M., & Boutellier, U. (2006). New fundamental resistance exercise determinants of molecular and cellular muscle adaptations. European journal of applied physiology, 97, 643-663.
Vierck, J., O'Reilly, B., Hossner, K., et al. (2000). Satellite cell regulation following myotrauma caused by resistance exercise. Cell biology international, 24(5), 263-272.
Volek, J. S. (2004). Influence of nutrition on responses to resistance training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(4), 689-696.
Waldron, M., Worsfold, P., Twist, C., et al. (2014). Changes in anthropometry and performance, and their interrelationships, across three seasons in elite youth rugby league players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(11), 3128-3136.
Wickiewicz, T.L., Roy, R.R., Powell, P.L., et al. (1984). Muscle architecture and force-velocity relationships in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology, 57: 435-443.
Yan, Z., Biggs, R. B., & Booth, F. W. (1993). Insulin-like growth factor immunoreactivity increases in muscle after acute eccentric contractions. Journal of Applied Physiology, 74(1), 410-414.
Referanslar
Allen, D. G., Whitehead, N. P., & Yeung, E. W. (2005). Mechanisms of stretch‐induced muscle damage in normal and dystrophic muscle: role of ionic changes. The Journal of physiology, 567(3), 723-735.
Andersen, J. L., & Aagaard, P. (2000). Myosin heavy chain IIX overshoot in human skeletal muscle. Muscle & Nerve: Official Journal of the American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine, 23(7), 1095-1104.
Bickel, C. S., Slade, J., Mahoney, E. D., et al. (2005). Time course of molecular responses of human skeletal muscle to acute bouts of resistance exercise. Journal of applied physiology, 98(2), 482-488.
Biolo, G., Tipton, K. D., Klein, S., et al. (1997). An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 273(1), E122-E129.
Bird, S. P., Tarpenning, K. M., & Marino, F. E. (2005). Designing resistance training programmes to enhance muscular fitness: a review of the acute programme variables. Sports medicine, 35, 841-851.
Burke, R.E., Levine, D.N., Salcman, M., et al. (1974). Motor units in cat soleus muscle: Physiological, histochemical and morphological characteristics. Journal of Applied Physiology 238: 503-514.
Campos, G. E., Luecke, T. J., Wendeln, H. K., et al. (2002). Muscular adaptations in response to three different resistance-training regimens: specificity of repetition maximum training zones. European journal of applied physiology, 88, 50-60.
Carroll, T.J., Riek, S., & Carson, R.G. (2001). Neural adaptations to resistance training implications for movement control. Sports Medicine, 31: 829-840.
Cormie, P., McGuigan, M. R., & Newton, R. U. (2011). Developing maximal neuromuscular power: Part 1—Biological basis of maximal power production. Sports medicine, 41, 17-38.
Conroy, B. P., Kraemer, W. J., Maresh, C. M., et al. (1992). Adaptive responses of bone to physical activity. Medicine Exercise Nutrition Health, 1, 64-74.
Deschenes, M. R., & Kraemer, W. J. (2002). Performance and physiologic adaptations to resistance training. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 81(11), S3-S16.
Felici, F., Rosponi, A., Sbriccoli, P., et al. (2001). Linear and non-linear analysis of surface electromyograms in weightlifters. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 84: 337-342.
Fleck, S. J., & Kraemer, W. (2014). Designing resistance training programs, 4E. Human Kinetics.
Folland, J.P., & Williams, A.G. (2007). The adaptations to strength training: Morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength. Sports Medicine, 37: 145-168.
Goldspink, G. (1992). Cellular and molecular aspects of adaptation in skeletal muscle. In Strength and power in sport, edited by P.V. Komi, 211-229. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
Häkkinen, K., Alen, M., Kallinen, M., et al. (2000). Neuromuscular adaptation during prolonged strength training, detraining and re-strength-training in middle-aged and elderly people. European journal of applied physiology, 83, 51-62.
Häussinger, D. (1996). The role of cellular hydration in the regulation of cell function. Biochemical Journal, 313(Pt 3), 697.
Hawke, T. J., & Garry, D. J. (2001). Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology. Journal of applied physiology, 91(2), 534-551.
Hill, M., & Goldspink, G. (2003). Expression and splicing of the insulin‐like growth factor gene in rodent muscle is associated with muscle satellite (stem) cell activation following local tissue damage. The Journal of physiology, 549(2), 409-418.
Hodson-Tole, E.F., & Wakeling, J.M. 2009. Motor unit recruitment for dynamic tasks: Current understanding and future directions. Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology, 179: 57-66.
Hornberger, T. A., Chu, W. K., Mak, Y. W., et al. (2006). The role of phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid in the mechanical activation of mTOR signaling in skeletal muscle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(12), 4741-4746.
Howe, L. P., Read, P., & Waldron, M. (2017). Muscle hypertrophy: A narrative review on training principles for increasing muscle mass. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 39(5), 72-81.
Kadi, F., Eriksson, A., Holmner, S., et al. (1999). Cellular adaptation of the trapezius muscle in strength-trained athletes. Histochemistry and cell biology, 111, 189-195.
Kanehisa, H., Ikegawa, S., & Fukunaga, T. (1998). Body composition and cross‐sectional areas of limb lean tissues in Olympic weight lifters. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 8(5), 271-278.
Kerr, D., Ackland, T., Maslen, B., et al. (2001). Resistance training over 2 years increases bone mass in calcium‐replete postmenopausal women. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 16(1), 175-181.
Kraemer, W. J., Fleck, S. J., Maresh, C. M., et al. (1999). Acute hormonal responses to a single bout of heavy resistance exercise in trained power lifters and untrained men. Canadian journal of applied physiology, 24(6), 524-537.
Kraemer, W. J., Ratamess, N. A., & French, D. N. (2002). Resistance training for health and performance. Current sports medicine reports, 1, 165-171.
Kraemer, W. J., Volek, J. S., Bush, J. A., et al. (1998). Hormonal responses to consecutive days of heavy-resistance exercise with or without nutritional supplementation. Journal of Applied Physiology, 85(4), 1544-1555.
Layne, J. E., & Nelson, M. E. (1999). The effects of progressive resistance training on bone density: a review. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 31(1), 25-30.
Loehrke, B., Renne, U., Viergutz, T., et al. (1996). Effects of stress-related signal molecules on cells associated with muscle tissue. Analytical and quantitative cytology and histology, 18(5), 383-388.
Low, S. Y., Rennie, M. J., & Taylor, P. M. (1997). Signaling elements involved in amino acid transport responses to altered muscle cell volume. The FASEB journal, 11(13), 1111-1117.
Lynn, R., & Morgan, D. L. (1994). Decline running produces more sarcomeres in rat vastus intermedius muscle fibers than does incline running. Journal of applied physiology, 77(3), 1439-1444.
Mattocks, K. T., Buckner, S. L., Jessee, M. B., et al. (2017). Practicing the Test Produces Strength Equivalent to Higher Volume Training. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 49(9), 1945-1954.
McCall, G. E., Byrnes, W. C., Fleck, S. J., et al. (1999). Acute and chronic hormonal responses to resistance training designed to promote muscle hypertrophy. Canadian Journal of applied physiology, 24(1), 96-107.
Owino, V., Yang, S. Y., & Goldspink, G. (2001). Age-related loss of skeletal muscle function and the inability to express the autocrine form of insulin-like growth factor-1 (MGF) in response to mechanical overload. FEBS letters, 505(2), 259-263.
Paul, A. C., & Rosenthal, N. (2002). Different modes of hypertrophy in skeletal muscle fibers. The Journal of cell biology, 156(4), 751-760.
Pette, D., & Staron, R.S. (2001). Transitions of muscle fiber phenotypic profiles. Histochemistry and Cell Biology, 115: 359-372.
Phillips, S. M., Tipton, K. D., Aarsland, A. S. L. E., et al. (1997). Mixed muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in humans. American journal of physiology-endocrinology and metabolism, 273(1), E99-E107.
Phillips, S. M., Tipton, K. D., Ferrando, A. A., et al. (1999). Resistance training reduces the acute exercise-induced increase in muscle protein turnover. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 39(1), E118–E124.
Rønnestad, B. R., Hansen, E. A., & Raastad, T. (2012). Strength training affects tendon cross-sectional area and freely chosen cadence differently in noncyclists and well-trained cyclists. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(1), 158-166.
Sale, D.G. (1992). Neural adaptations to strength training. In Strength and power in sport, edited by P.V. Komi, 249-265. Boston: Blackwell Scientific.
Sara, V. R., & Hall, K. (1990). Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins. Physiological Reviews, 70(3), 591-614.
Schoenfeld, B. J. (2010). The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(10), 2857-2872.
Schoenfeld, B. J., Contreras, B., Tiryaki-Sonmez, G., et al. (2015). Regional differences in muscle activation during hamstrings exercise. The Journal of strength & conditioning research, 29(1), 159-164.
Shinohara, M., Kouzaki, M., Yoshihisa, et al. (1997). Efficacy of tourniquet ischemia for strength training with low resistance. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 77, 189-191.
Shoepe, T. C., Stelzer, J. E., Garner, D. P., et al. (2003). Functional adaptability of muscle fibers to long-term resistance exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35(6), 944-951.
Schott, J., McCully, K., & Rutherford, O. M. (1995). The role of metabolites in strength training: II. Short versus long isometric contractions. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 71, 337-341.
Staron, R. S., Karapondo, D. L., Kraemer, W. J., et al. (1994). Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women. Journal of applied physiology, 76(3), 1247-1255.
Stone, M.H. (1992). Connective tissue and bone response to strength training. In Strength and power training in sport, edited by P.V. Komi, 279-290. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
Tarpenning, K. M., Wiswell, R. A., Hawkins, S. A., et al. (2001). Influence of weight training exercise and modification of hormonal response on skeletal muscle growth. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 4(4), 431-446.
Toigo, M., & Boutellier, U. (2006). New fundamental resistance exercise determinants of molecular and cellular muscle adaptations. European journal of applied physiology, 97, 643-663.
Vierck, J., O'Reilly, B., Hossner, K., et al. (2000). Satellite cell regulation following myotrauma caused by resistance exercise. Cell biology international, 24(5), 263-272.
Volek, J. S. (2004). Influence of nutrition on responses to resistance training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(4), 689-696.
Waldron, M., Worsfold, P., Twist, C., et al. (2014). Changes in anthropometry and performance, and their interrelationships, across three seasons in elite youth rugby league players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(11), 3128-3136.
Wickiewicz, T.L., Roy, R.R., Powell, P.L., et al. (1984). Muscle architecture and force-velocity relationships in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology, 57: 435-443.
Yan, Z., Biggs, R. B., & Booth, F. W. (1993). Insulin-like growth factor immunoreactivity increases in muscle after acute eccentric contractions. Journal of Applied Physiology, 74(1), 410-414.
