Covid-19 Pandemic and Regional Inequalities in The U.S.
Özet
Purpose of this chapter is to search the effect of Covid-19 pandemic on the income inequalities across US states. Our dataset covers 51 US states over the period 1997-2021. The variable analyzed is the per capita real GDP (y). Having applied, Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Kernel Density Estimations, we reached several results. Covid-19 had a diverse impact on the states, while in almost half of the states, there is tightening of the economy, in the others, it is observed positive economic growth between 2019 and 2021. The covid-19 pandemic did not influence significantly the state level income distribution and inequalities.
Referanslar
Azzoni, C.R. (2001) Economic growth and regional income inequality in Brazil. The Annals of Regional Science, 35(1), 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001680000038
Barro, R. J. & Sala-i-Martin, X. (1992) Convergence. Journal of Political Economy, 100(2), 223-251. doi:10.1086/261816
Barro, R.J. & Sala-i Martin, X. (1991) Convergence across States and Regions. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 22(1), 107-182. https://doi.org/10.2307/2534639
Berry, B. (1988) Migration reversals in perspective: The long wave evidence. International Regional Science Review, 11(3), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/016001768801100302
Carlino, G. & DeFina, R. (1998) The differential regional effects of monetary policy. Review of Economics and Statistics, 80(5), 572–587. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465398557843
Carlino, G. & DeFina, R. (1999) The differential regional effects of monetary policy: Evidence from the US state. Journal of Regional Science, 39(2), 339–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9787.00137
Carlino, C. Defina, R. & Sill, K. (2003) Post War Changes in Employment Volatility: New Evidence From State/Industry Panel Data. Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, Working Paper No. 03-18. https://www.philadelphiafed.org/-/media/frbp/assets/working-papers/2003/wp03-18.pdf
Carlino, C., Defina, R. & Sill, K. (2013) The Long and Large Decline in State Employment Growth Volatility. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 45(2-3), 521-534. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmcb.12014
Dimelis, S. and Livada, A. (1999) Inequality and business cycles in the U.S. and European Union countries. International Advances in Economic Research, 5(3), 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02296415
Duran, H.E. (2014) Short-Run Dynamics of Income Disparities and Regional Cycle Synchronization in the U.S. Growth and Change, 45(2), 292-332. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12040
Duran, H.E. (2015) Non-Linear Regional Income Divergence and Policies: Turkey Case. Regional Science Inquiry, Hellenic Association of Regional Scientists-Greece, 7(2), 107-114.
Duran, H.E. & Erdem, U. (2017) Regional Inequality and International Trade in Turkey: A Dynamic Spatial Panel Approach. A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, 14(3), 25-39. doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2017.24633
Härdle, W. (1991). Smoothing Techniques with Implementation in S, Springer-Verlag.
Kolmogorov, A. N. (1933) Sulla Determinazione Empirica di Una Legge di Distribuzione. Giornale dell’Istituto Italiano degli Attuari, 4, 83-91.
Marron, J.S. & Nolan, D. (1989) Canonical Kernels for Density Estimation, Statistics and Probability Letters, 7(3), 191–195.
Magrini S., Gerolimetto M. & Duran, H.E. (2015). Regional Convergence and Aggregate Business Cycle in the United States. Regional Studies, 49(2), 51-272. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.766319
Mendershausen, H. (1946). Changes in income distribution during the Great Depression. Studies in Income and Wealth, vol. 7, New York: NBER.
Owyang, M.T. & Wall, H.J. (2009) Regional VARs and the channels of monetary policy. Applied Economics Letters, 16(12),1191–1194. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850701367247
Park, Y. & G. J. D. Hewings. (2003) Does Industry Mix Matter in Regional Business Cycles? Studies in Regional Science, 42(1), 39-60.
Pekkala, S. (2000) Aggregate economic fluctuations and regional convergence: The Finnish case 1988–1995. Applied Economics, 32(2), 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/000368400322895
Petrakos, G. & Y. Saratsis. (2000) Regional inequalities in Greece, Papers in Regional Science, 79, 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s101100050003
Petrakos, G., A. Rodriquez-Pose & A. Rovolis. (2005) Growth, integration, and regional disparities in the European Union. Environment and Planning, 37(10), 1837–1855. https://doi.org/10.1068/a37348
Rodriquez-Pose, A. & U. Fratesi. (2007) Regional business cycles and the emergence of sheltered economies in the southern periphery of Europe. Growth and Change, 38(4), 621–648. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2257.2007.00390.x
Rey, S & B. Montouri (1999) US Regional income convergence: A spatial econometric perspective, Regional Studies, Vol.33, No. 2, pp. 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409950122945
Silverman, B. W. (1986). Density Estimation for Statistics and Data Analysis. Published in Monographs on Statistics and Applied Probability, Chapman & Hall.
Simonoff, J.S. (1996). Smoothing Methods in Statistics. Springer-Verlag.
Smirnov, N.V. (1939) On the estimation of the discrepancy between emprical curves of distribution for two independent samples, Moscow University Mathematic Bulletin, 2(2), 3–14.
Solow, R.M. (1956) A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70(1), 65-94. https://doi.org/10.2307/1884513
World Health Organization (WHO) https://covid19.who.int/ (accessed 20.10.2022).
https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/WLD/world/gdp-growth-rate (accessed 20.10.2022)
World Bank (WB) https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=US (accessed 20.10.2022).
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) https://www.bea.gov/ (accessed 20.10.2022).
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) https://stats.oecd.org/ (accessed 20.10.2022)
www.datawrapper.de (accessed 20.10.2022).
Referanslar
Azzoni, C.R. (2001) Economic growth and regional income inequality in Brazil. The Annals of Regional Science, 35(1), 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001680000038
Barro, R. J. & Sala-i-Martin, X. (1992) Convergence. Journal of Political Economy, 100(2), 223-251. doi:10.1086/261816
Barro, R.J. & Sala-i Martin, X. (1991) Convergence across States and Regions. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 22(1), 107-182. https://doi.org/10.2307/2534639
Berry, B. (1988) Migration reversals in perspective: The long wave evidence. International Regional Science Review, 11(3), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/016001768801100302
Carlino, G. & DeFina, R. (1998) The differential regional effects of monetary policy. Review of Economics and Statistics, 80(5), 572–587. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465398557843
Carlino, G. & DeFina, R. (1999) The differential regional effects of monetary policy: Evidence from the US state. Journal of Regional Science, 39(2), 339–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9787.00137
Carlino, C. Defina, R. & Sill, K. (2003) Post War Changes in Employment Volatility: New Evidence From State/Industry Panel Data. Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, Working Paper No. 03-18. https://www.philadelphiafed.org/-/media/frbp/assets/working-papers/2003/wp03-18.pdf
Carlino, C., Defina, R. & Sill, K. (2013) The Long and Large Decline in State Employment Growth Volatility. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 45(2-3), 521-534. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmcb.12014
Dimelis, S. and Livada, A. (1999) Inequality and business cycles in the U.S. and European Union countries. International Advances in Economic Research, 5(3), 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02296415
Duran, H.E. (2014) Short-Run Dynamics of Income Disparities and Regional Cycle Synchronization in the U.S. Growth and Change, 45(2), 292-332. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12040
Duran, H.E. (2015) Non-Linear Regional Income Divergence and Policies: Turkey Case. Regional Science Inquiry, Hellenic Association of Regional Scientists-Greece, 7(2), 107-114.
Duran, H.E. & Erdem, U. (2017) Regional Inequality and International Trade in Turkey: A Dynamic Spatial Panel Approach. A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, 14(3), 25-39. doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2017.24633
Härdle, W. (1991). Smoothing Techniques with Implementation in S, Springer-Verlag.
Kolmogorov, A. N. (1933) Sulla Determinazione Empirica di Una Legge di Distribuzione. Giornale dell’Istituto Italiano degli Attuari, 4, 83-91.
Marron, J.S. & Nolan, D. (1989) Canonical Kernels for Density Estimation, Statistics and Probability Letters, 7(3), 191–195.
Magrini S., Gerolimetto M. & Duran, H.E. (2015). Regional Convergence and Aggregate Business Cycle in the United States. Regional Studies, 49(2), 51-272. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.766319
Mendershausen, H. (1946). Changes in income distribution during the Great Depression. Studies in Income and Wealth, vol. 7, New York: NBER.
Owyang, M.T. & Wall, H.J. (2009) Regional VARs and the channels of monetary policy. Applied Economics Letters, 16(12),1191–1194. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850701367247
Park, Y. & G. J. D. Hewings. (2003) Does Industry Mix Matter in Regional Business Cycles? Studies in Regional Science, 42(1), 39-60.
Pekkala, S. (2000) Aggregate economic fluctuations and regional convergence: The Finnish case 1988–1995. Applied Economics, 32(2), 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/000368400322895
Petrakos, G. & Y. Saratsis. (2000) Regional inequalities in Greece, Papers in Regional Science, 79, 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s101100050003
Petrakos, G., A. Rodriquez-Pose & A. Rovolis. (2005) Growth, integration, and regional disparities in the European Union. Environment and Planning, 37(10), 1837–1855. https://doi.org/10.1068/a37348
Rodriquez-Pose, A. & U. Fratesi. (2007) Regional business cycles and the emergence of sheltered economies in the southern periphery of Europe. Growth and Change, 38(4), 621–648. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2257.2007.00390.x
Rey, S & B. Montouri (1999) US Regional income convergence: A spatial econometric perspective, Regional Studies, Vol.33, No. 2, pp. 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409950122945
Silverman, B. W. (1986). Density Estimation for Statistics and Data Analysis. Published in Monographs on Statistics and Applied Probability, Chapman & Hall.
Simonoff, J.S. (1996). Smoothing Methods in Statistics. Springer-Verlag.
Smirnov, N.V. (1939) On the estimation of the discrepancy between emprical curves of distribution for two independent samples, Moscow University Mathematic Bulletin, 2(2), 3–14.
Solow, R.M. (1956) A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70(1), 65-94. https://doi.org/10.2307/1884513
World Health Organization (WHO) https://covid19.who.int/ (accessed 20.10.2022).
https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/WLD/world/gdp-growth-rate (accessed 20.10.2022)
World Bank (WB) https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=US (accessed 20.10.2022).
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) https://www.bea.gov/ (accessed 20.10.2022).
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) https://stats.oecd.org/ (accessed 20.10.2022)
www.datawrapper.de (accessed 20.10.2022).