A Theoretical Discussion on The Relationship Between Cultural Intelligence and Effective Leadership
Özet
The aim of this chapter was to discuss the relationship between cultural intelligence and effective leadership and make some implications. Today, organizations strive to be international. This forces them to function in diverse cultural settings. However, organizations face challenges in trying to create synergy among their employees who are from various cultural and geographical settings. Studies have shown that cultural intelligence is important in building effective global organizations around these differences. Cultural intelligence helps leaders to understand, appreciate, embrace, and effectively lead a culturally diverse organization. Therefore, it can have a significant role in the display of effective leadership behaviors.
Referanslar
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Koh, C. (2006). Personality correlates of the four-factor model of Cultural Intelligence. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 100–123. Doi: 10.1177/1059601105275267
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K. Y., Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2007). Cultural intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(3), 335–371. Doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8784.2007.00082.x
Avolio, B. J., Kahai, S., & Dodge, G. E. (2000). E-leadership: Implications for theory, research, and practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 615–668. Doi: 10.1016/s1048-9843(00)00062-x
Bandura, A. (1995). Social Foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prenctice Hall.
Bouckenooghe, D., Zafar, A., & Raja, U. (2014). How ethical leadership shapes employees’ job performance: The mediating roles of goal congruence and Psychological Capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(2), 251–264. Doi: 10.1007/s10551-014-2162-3
Briñol, P., & DeMarree, K. G. (2012). Social metacognition. Psychology Press.
Brooks, A. W., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2011). Can nervous nelly negotiate? how anxiety causes negotiators to make low first offers, exit early, and earn less profit. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(1), 43–54. Doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.01.008
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134. Doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002
Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Klein, C., Goodwin, G. F., Salas, E., & Halpin, S. M. (2006). What type of leadership behaviors are functional in teams? A meta-analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(3), 288–307. Doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.02.007
Burke, L. A., & Miller, M. K. (1999). Taking the mystery out of intuitive decision making. Academy of Management Perspectives, 13(4), 91–99. Doi: 10.5465/ame.1999.2570557
Butler, C. L., Zander, L., Mockaitis, A., & Sutton, C. (2012). The global leader as Boundary Spanner, bridge maker, and Blender. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5(2), 240–243. Doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2012.01439.x
Certo, S. C., & Certo, S. T. (2008). Modern management: Concepts and skills. Pearson.
Derr, C. B., Roussillon, S., & Bournois, F. (2002). Cross-cultural approaches to leadership development. Quorum Books.
DuBrin, A. J. (2015). Principles of leadership. Cengage Learning.
Dyne, L. V., Ang, S., Ng, K. Y., Rockstuhl, T., Tan, M. L., & Koh, C. (2012). Sub-dimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(4), 295–313. Doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00429.x
Dyne, V. L., Ang, S., & Koh, C. (2015). Development and validation of the CQS: The cultural intelligence scale. Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications. Routledge.
Earley, P. C., & Mosakowski, E. (2004). Cultural intelligence. Harvard Business Review, 82(10), 139–146.
Earley, P. C., & Peterson, R. S. (2004). The elusive cultural chameleon: Cultural intelligence as a new approach to intercultural training for the global manager. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3(1), 100–115. Doi: 10.5465/amle.2004.12436826
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. Doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153
Ely, R. J. (2004). A field study of group diversity, participation in Diversity Education Programs, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 755–780. Doi: 10.1002/job.268
Endsley, M. R. (2017). Toward a theory of situation awareness in Dynamic Systems. Situational Awareness, 9–42. Doi: 10.4324/9781315087924-3
Fehr, E., Kirchler, E., Weichbold, A., & Gächter, S. (1998). When social norms overpower competition: Gift Exchange in experimental Labor Markets. Journal of Labor Economics, 16(2), 324–351. Doi: 10.1086/209891
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. Doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906
Fujimoto, Y., Härtel, C. E. J., & Härtel, G. F. (2004). A field test of the diversity‐openness moderator model in newly formed groups: Openness to diversity affects group decision effectiveness and interaction patterns. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 11(4), 4–16. Doi: 10.1108/13527600410797918
Fujimoto, Y., Härtel, C. E. J., Härtel, G. F., & Baker, N. J. (2000). Openness to dissimilarity moderates the consequences of diversity in well‐established groups. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 38(3), 46–61. Doi: 10.1177/103841110003800305
Gibson, C. B., & Gibbs, J. L. (2006). Unpacking the concept of virtuality: The effects of geographic dispersion, electronic dependence, dynamic structure, and national diversity on Team Innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51(3), 451–495. Doi: 10.2189/asqu.51.3.451
Gitonga, N., & Zhang, Y. (2016). Assessing the influence of Project Manager’s Cultural Intelligence (CQ) on Project Team Dynamics-A Case of china-kenya projects. Proceedings of the 2016 International Symposium on Business Cooperation and Development, 370–379. Doi: 10.2991/isbcd-16.2016.78
Goldsmith, M. (2003). Global leadership: The next generation. FT/Prentice Hall.
Hoch, J. E., & Dulebohn, J. H. (2017). Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared leadership in virtual teams: A theoretical framework. Human Resource Management Review, 27(4), 678–693. Doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2016.12.012
Hofstede, G. (2013). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Sage.
Holtz, B. C., & Harold, C. M. (2012). Effects of leadership consideration and structure on employee perceptions of justice and counterproductive work behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(4), 492–519. Doi: 10.1002/job.1825
Jehn, K. A., & Bezrukova, K. (2004). A field study of group Diversity, Workgroup Context, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 703–729. Doi: 10.1002/job.257
Johnson, J. P., Lenartowicz, T., & Apud, S. (2006). Cross-cultural competence in international business: Toward a definition and a model. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(4), 525–543. Doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400205
Kerr, S., Schriesheim, C. A., Murphy, C. J., & Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Toward a contingency theory of leadership based upon the consideration and initiating structure literature. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 12(1), 62–82. Doi: 10.1016/0030-5073(74)90037-3
Khandelwal, P., & Taneja, A. (2010). Intuitive decision making in management. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 46(1), 150–156.
Koopman, P. L., Den Hartog, D. N., Konrad, E., & al, et. (1999). National Culture and Leadership Profiles in Europe: Some results from the Globe Study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(4), 503–520. Doi: 10.1080/135943299398131
Lisak, A., & Erez, M. (2015). Leadership emergence in multicultural teams: The Power of Global Characteristics. Journal of World Business, 50(1), 3–14. Doi: 10.1016/j.jwb.2014.01.002
Lowenhaupt, R. (2014). The language of leadership: Principal rhetoric in everyday practice. Journal of Educational Administration, 52(4), 446–468. Doi: 10.1108/jea-11-2012-0118
Maheshwari, S., & Rai, A. (2022). Effective leadership attributes: Evidences from Indian Power Sector. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 58(2), 221-242.
Mayer, D. M., Aquino, K., Greenbaum, R. L., & Kuenzi, M. (2012). Who displays ethical leadership, and why does it matter? an examination of antecedents and consequences of ethical leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1), 151–171. Doi: 10.5465/amj.2008.0276
Mayfield, J., & Mayfield, M. (2002). Leader communication strategies critical paths to improving employee commitment. American Business Review, 20(2), 89-94.
Nanus, B. (1995). Visionary leadership: Creating a compelling sense of direction for your organization. Jossey-Bass.
Ng, K.Y., & Earley, P. C. (2006). Culture and intelligence old constructs, new frontiers. Organization Management, 31(1), 4–19. Doi: 10.1177/1059601105275251
Ng, K.-Y., & Earley, P. C. (2006a). Culture + intelligence. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 4–19. Doi: 10.1177/1059601105275251
O’Neil, H. F., & Abedi, J. (1996). Reliability and validity of a state metacognitive inventory: Potential for alternative assessment. The Journal of Educational Research, 89(4), 234-245. Doi: 10.1080/00220671.1996.9941208
Özbağ, G. K. (2016). The role of personality in leadership: Five factor personality traits and ethical leadership. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 235, 235–242. Doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.11.019
Rueden, C., & Vugt, M. (2015). Leadership in small-scale societies: Some implications for theory, research, and Practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(6), 978–990. Doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.10.004
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. Doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
Sayegh, L., Anthony, W. P., & Perrewé, P. L. (2004). Managerial decision-making under crisis: The role of emotion in an intuitive decision process. Human Resource Management Review, 14(2), 179–199. Doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2004.05.002
Schuetz, A. (2017). Effective leadership and its impact on an organisation’s success. Journal of Corporate Responsibility and Leadership, 3(3), 73. Doi: 10.12775/jcrl.2016.017
Shah, B. (2018). Effective Leadership in Organization. European Journal of Business and Management Research, 3(3), 1-5.
Shockley-Zalabak, P. S. (2019). Fundamentals of Organizational Communication: Knowledge, sensitivity, skills, values. Pearson.
Shokef, E., & Erez, M. (2006). Global work culture and global identity, as a platform for a shared understanding in multicultural teams. Research on Managing Groups and Teams, 325–352. Doi: 10.1016/s1534-0856(06)09013-x
Stanko, T. L., & Gibson, C. B. (2009). The role of cultural elements in virtual teams. Cambridge Handbook of Culture, Organizations, and Work, 272–304. Doi: 10.1017/cbo9780511581151.012
Sternberg, R. J. (1988). What is intelligence?: Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Ablex.
Sternberg, R. J. (2015). Handbook of cultural intelligence. Routledge.
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2006). Cultural intelligence and successful intelligence. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 27-39.
Sternberg, R. J., Siriner, I., Oh, J., & Wong, C. H. (2022). Cultural intelligence: What is it and how can it effectively be measured? Journal of Intelligence, 10(3), 54. Doi: 10.3390/jintelligence10030054
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research. Free Press.
Thomas, D. C., Elron, E., Stahl, G., Ekelund, B. Z., Ravlin, E. C., Cerdin, J.-L., Poelmans, S., Brislin, R., Pekerti, A., Aycan, Z., Maznevski, M., Au, K., & Lazarova, M. B. (2008). Cultural intelligence. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 8(2), 123–143. Doi: 10.1177/1470595808091787
Triandis, H. C. (2006). Cultural intelligence in organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 20-26.
Vancouver, J. B., More, K. M., & Yoder, R. J. (2008). Self-efficacy and resource allocation: Support for a nonmonotonic, discontinuous model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 35–47. Doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.35
Referanslar
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Koh, C. (2006). Personality correlates of the four-factor model of Cultural Intelligence. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 100–123. Doi: 10.1177/1059601105275267
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K. Y., Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2007). Cultural intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(3), 335–371. Doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8784.2007.00082.x
Avolio, B. J., Kahai, S., & Dodge, G. E. (2000). E-leadership: Implications for theory, research, and practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 615–668. Doi: 10.1016/s1048-9843(00)00062-x
Bandura, A. (1995). Social Foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prenctice Hall.
Bouckenooghe, D., Zafar, A., & Raja, U. (2014). How ethical leadership shapes employees’ job performance: The mediating roles of goal congruence and Psychological Capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(2), 251–264. Doi: 10.1007/s10551-014-2162-3
Briñol, P., & DeMarree, K. G. (2012). Social metacognition. Psychology Press.
Brooks, A. W., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2011). Can nervous nelly negotiate? how anxiety causes negotiators to make low first offers, exit early, and earn less profit. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(1), 43–54. Doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.01.008
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134. Doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002
Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Klein, C., Goodwin, G. F., Salas, E., & Halpin, S. M. (2006). What type of leadership behaviors are functional in teams? A meta-analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(3), 288–307. Doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.02.007
Burke, L. A., & Miller, M. K. (1999). Taking the mystery out of intuitive decision making. Academy of Management Perspectives, 13(4), 91–99. Doi: 10.5465/ame.1999.2570557
Butler, C. L., Zander, L., Mockaitis, A., & Sutton, C. (2012). The global leader as Boundary Spanner, bridge maker, and Blender. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5(2), 240–243. Doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2012.01439.x
Certo, S. C., & Certo, S. T. (2008). Modern management: Concepts and skills. Pearson.
Derr, C. B., Roussillon, S., & Bournois, F. (2002). Cross-cultural approaches to leadership development. Quorum Books.
DuBrin, A. J. (2015). Principles of leadership. Cengage Learning.
Dyne, L. V., Ang, S., Ng, K. Y., Rockstuhl, T., Tan, M. L., & Koh, C. (2012). Sub-dimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(4), 295–313. Doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00429.x
Dyne, V. L., Ang, S., & Koh, C. (2015). Development and validation of the CQS: The cultural intelligence scale. Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications. Routledge.
Earley, P. C., & Mosakowski, E. (2004). Cultural intelligence. Harvard Business Review, 82(10), 139–146.
Earley, P. C., & Peterson, R. S. (2004). The elusive cultural chameleon: Cultural intelligence as a new approach to intercultural training for the global manager. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3(1), 100–115. Doi: 10.5465/amle.2004.12436826
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. Doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153
Ely, R. J. (2004). A field study of group diversity, participation in Diversity Education Programs, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 755–780. Doi: 10.1002/job.268
Endsley, M. R. (2017). Toward a theory of situation awareness in Dynamic Systems. Situational Awareness, 9–42. Doi: 10.4324/9781315087924-3
Fehr, E., Kirchler, E., Weichbold, A., & Gächter, S. (1998). When social norms overpower competition: Gift Exchange in experimental Labor Markets. Journal of Labor Economics, 16(2), 324–351. Doi: 10.1086/209891
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. Doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906
Fujimoto, Y., Härtel, C. E. J., & Härtel, G. F. (2004). A field test of the diversity‐openness moderator model in newly formed groups: Openness to diversity affects group decision effectiveness and interaction patterns. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 11(4), 4–16. Doi: 10.1108/13527600410797918
Fujimoto, Y., Härtel, C. E. J., Härtel, G. F., & Baker, N. J. (2000). Openness to dissimilarity moderates the consequences of diversity in well‐established groups. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 38(3), 46–61. Doi: 10.1177/103841110003800305
Gibson, C. B., & Gibbs, J. L. (2006). Unpacking the concept of virtuality: The effects of geographic dispersion, electronic dependence, dynamic structure, and national diversity on Team Innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51(3), 451–495. Doi: 10.2189/asqu.51.3.451
Gitonga, N., & Zhang, Y. (2016). Assessing the influence of Project Manager’s Cultural Intelligence (CQ) on Project Team Dynamics-A Case of china-kenya projects. Proceedings of the 2016 International Symposium on Business Cooperation and Development, 370–379. Doi: 10.2991/isbcd-16.2016.78
Goldsmith, M. (2003). Global leadership: The next generation. FT/Prentice Hall.
Hoch, J. E., & Dulebohn, J. H. (2017). Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared leadership in virtual teams: A theoretical framework. Human Resource Management Review, 27(4), 678–693. Doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2016.12.012
Hofstede, G. (2013). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Sage.
Holtz, B. C., & Harold, C. M. (2012). Effects of leadership consideration and structure on employee perceptions of justice and counterproductive work behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(4), 492–519. Doi: 10.1002/job.1825
Jehn, K. A., & Bezrukova, K. (2004). A field study of group Diversity, Workgroup Context, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 703–729. Doi: 10.1002/job.257
Johnson, J. P., Lenartowicz, T., & Apud, S. (2006). Cross-cultural competence in international business: Toward a definition and a model. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(4), 525–543. Doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400205
Kerr, S., Schriesheim, C. A., Murphy, C. J., & Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Toward a contingency theory of leadership based upon the consideration and initiating structure literature. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 12(1), 62–82. Doi: 10.1016/0030-5073(74)90037-3
Khandelwal, P., & Taneja, A. (2010). Intuitive decision making in management. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 46(1), 150–156.
Koopman, P. L., Den Hartog, D. N., Konrad, E., & al, et. (1999). National Culture and Leadership Profiles in Europe: Some results from the Globe Study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(4), 503–520. Doi: 10.1080/135943299398131
Lisak, A., & Erez, M. (2015). Leadership emergence in multicultural teams: The Power of Global Characteristics. Journal of World Business, 50(1), 3–14. Doi: 10.1016/j.jwb.2014.01.002
Lowenhaupt, R. (2014). The language of leadership: Principal rhetoric in everyday practice. Journal of Educational Administration, 52(4), 446–468. Doi: 10.1108/jea-11-2012-0118
Maheshwari, S., & Rai, A. (2022). Effective leadership attributes: Evidences from Indian Power Sector. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 58(2), 221-242.
Mayer, D. M., Aquino, K., Greenbaum, R. L., & Kuenzi, M. (2012). Who displays ethical leadership, and why does it matter? an examination of antecedents and consequences of ethical leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1), 151–171. Doi: 10.5465/amj.2008.0276
Mayfield, J., & Mayfield, M. (2002). Leader communication strategies critical paths to improving employee commitment. American Business Review, 20(2), 89-94.
Nanus, B. (1995). Visionary leadership: Creating a compelling sense of direction for your organization. Jossey-Bass.
Ng, K.Y., & Earley, P. C. (2006). Culture and intelligence old constructs, new frontiers. Organization Management, 31(1), 4–19. Doi: 10.1177/1059601105275251
Ng, K.-Y., & Earley, P. C. (2006a). Culture + intelligence. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 4–19. Doi: 10.1177/1059601105275251
O’Neil, H. F., & Abedi, J. (1996). Reliability and validity of a state metacognitive inventory: Potential for alternative assessment. The Journal of Educational Research, 89(4), 234-245. Doi: 10.1080/00220671.1996.9941208
Özbağ, G. K. (2016). The role of personality in leadership: Five factor personality traits and ethical leadership. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 235, 235–242. Doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.11.019
Rueden, C., & Vugt, M. (2015). Leadership in small-scale societies: Some implications for theory, research, and Practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(6), 978–990. Doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.10.004
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. Doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
Sayegh, L., Anthony, W. P., & Perrewé, P. L. (2004). Managerial decision-making under crisis: The role of emotion in an intuitive decision process. Human Resource Management Review, 14(2), 179–199. Doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2004.05.002
Schuetz, A. (2017). Effective leadership and its impact on an organisation’s success. Journal of Corporate Responsibility and Leadership, 3(3), 73. Doi: 10.12775/jcrl.2016.017
Shah, B. (2018). Effective Leadership in Organization. European Journal of Business and Management Research, 3(3), 1-5.
Shockley-Zalabak, P. S. (2019). Fundamentals of Organizational Communication: Knowledge, sensitivity, skills, values. Pearson.
Shokef, E., & Erez, M. (2006). Global work culture and global identity, as a platform for a shared understanding in multicultural teams. Research on Managing Groups and Teams, 325–352. Doi: 10.1016/s1534-0856(06)09013-x
Stanko, T. L., & Gibson, C. B. (2009). The role of cultural elements in virtual teams. Cambridge Handbook of Culture, Organizations, and Work, 272–304. Doi: 10.1017/cbo9780511581151.012
Sternberg, R. J. (1988). What is intelligence?: Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Ablex.
Sternberg, R. J. (2015). Handbook of cultural intelligence. Routledge.
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2006). Cultural intelligence and successful intelligence. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 27-39.
Sternberg, R. J., Siriner, I., Oh, J., & Wong, C. H. (2022). Cultural intelligence: What is it and how can it effectively be measured? Journal of Intelligence, 10(3), 54. Doi: 10.3390/jintelligence10030054
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research. Free Press.
Thomas, D. C., Elron, E., Stahl, G., Ekelund, B. Z., Ravlin, E. C., Cerdin, J.-L., Poelmans, S., Brislin, R., Pekerti, A., Aycan, Z., Maznevski, M., Au, K., & Lazarova, M. B. (2008). Cultural intelligence. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 8(2), 123–143. Doi: 10.1177/1470595808091787
Triandis, H. C. (2006). Cultural intelligence in organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 20-26.
Vancouver, J. B., More, K. M., & Yoder, R. J. (2008). Self-efficacy and resource allocation: Support for a nonmonotonic, discontinuous model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 35–47. Doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.35
