Ökaryotik ve Prokaryotik Canlılarda RNA’ların İşlenme Mekanizmaları
Özet
Transkripsiyon sonucu hücrelerde üretilen RNA'lar, protein sentezine katılacak aktif formda değildirler. Birincil transkript olarak adlandırılan bu RNA’lar işlevsel bir molekül olup sitoplazmaya gönderilmeden önce çekirdekte kapsamlı bir şekilde işlenirler. Her RNA kendine özgü, bir takım işlenme mekanizmalarından geçerek aktif ve işlevsel formlarını kazanırlar. RNA'ların işlenmesi, hücredeki metabolik faaliyetlerin kontrolünde, dokuya özgü proteinlerin üretiminde ve organizmadaki genomunun kodlama potansiyelinin arttırılmasında oldukça önemlidir. Ayrıca, hücrede bulunan RNA miktarı çevresel koşullara göre dengede tutulmalıdır. Bu nedenle, bu koşulların değişmesi hücrelerde transkripsiyon sürecinin baskılanmasına ve RNA sentezinin durmasına yol açmaktadır. Bu bölümde, RNA’ların transkribe olduktan sonra fonksiyonel olabilmeleri için geçtiği çeşitli işlenme basamaklarından, işlenen RNA’ların taşınması, düzeltilmesi ve yıkım sürecinden ve de kırpılma mekanizmalarından kısaca bahsedilecektir.
Referanslar
Rio DC. RNA processing. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1992;4(3):444-52.
Ruta V, Pagliarini V, Sette C. Coordination of RNA Processing Regulation by Signal Transduction Pathways. Biomolecules. 2021;11(10).
Alifano P, Bruni CB, Carlomagno MS. Control of mRNA processing and decay in prokaryotes. Genetica. 1994;94(2-3):157-72.
Hocine S, Singer RH, Grünwald D. RNA processing and export. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2010;2(12):a000752.
Ghosh A, Lima CD. Enzymology of RNA cap synthesis. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2010;1(1):152-72.
Shuman S. Structure, mechanism, and evolution of the mRNA capping apparatus. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol. 2001;66:1-40.
Ramanathan A, Robb GB, Chan SH. mRNA capping: biological functions and applications. Nucleic Acids Res. 2016;44(16):7511-26.
Topisirovic I, Svitkin YV, Sonenberg N, Shatkin AJ. Cap and cap-binding proteins in the control of gene expression. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2011;2(2):277-98.
Evdokimova V, Ruzanov P, Imataka H, Raught B, Svitkin Y, Ovchinnikov LP, et al. The major mRNA-associated protein YB-1 is a potent 5' cap-dependent mRNA stabilizer. EMBO J. 2001;20(19):5491-502.
Banerjee AK. 5'-terminal cap structure in eucaryotic messenger ribonucleic acids. Microbiol Rev. 1980;44(2):175-205.
Hall TM. Poly(A) tail synthesis and regulation: recent structural insights. Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2002;12(1):82-8.
Passmore LA, Coller J. Roles of mRNA poly(A) tails in regulation of eukaryotic gene expression. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2022;23(2):93-106.
Phizicky EM, Hopper AK. tRNA biology charges to the front. Genes Dev. 2010;24(17):1832-60.
Deutscher MP. Processing of tRNA in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. CRC Crit Rev Biochem. 1984;17(1):45-71.
Lorenz C, Lünse CE, Mörl M. tRNA Modifications: Impact on Structure and Thermal Adaptation. Biomolecules. 2017;7(2).
Apirion D, Miczak A. RNA processing in prokaryotic cells. Bioessays. 1993;15(2):113-20.
Evans D, Marquez SM, Pace NR. RNase P: interface of the RNA and protein worlds. Trends Biochem Sci. 2006;31(6):333-41.
Altman S. Biosynthesis of transfer RNA in Escherichia coli. Cell. 1975;4(1):21-9.
Schedl P, Primakoff P. Mutants of Escherichia coli thermosensitive for the synthesis of transfer RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973;70(7):2091-5.
Bikoff EK, Gefter ML. In vitro synthesis of transfer RNA. I. Purification of required components. J Biol Chem. 1975;250(16):6240-7.
Huang H, Li H, Pan R, Wang S, Liu X. tRNA modifications and their potential roles in pancreatic cancer. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2021;714:109083.
Chen X, Li S, Zhang B, Sun H, Wang J, Zhang W, et al. A new bacterial tRNA enhances antibiotic production in Streptomyces by circumventing inefficient wobble base-pairing. Nucleic Acids Res. 2022;50(12):7084-96.
Sharp SJ, Schaack J, Cooley L, Burke DJ, Söll D. Structure and transcription of eukaryotic tRNA genes. CRC Crit Rev Biochem. 1985;19(2):107-44.
Dieci G, Fiorino G, Castelnuovo M, Teichmann M, Pagano A. The expanding RNA polymerase III transcriptome. Trends Genet. 2007;23(12):614-22.
Deutscher MP. Ribonucleases, tRNA nucleotidyltransferase, and the 3' processing of tRNA. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol. 1990;39:209-40.
Pöhler MT, Roach TM, Betat H, Jackman JE, Mörl M. A Temporal Order in 5'- and 3'- Processing of Eukaryotic tRNA. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(6).
Henras AK, Plisson-Chastang C, O'Donohue MF, Chakraborty A, Gleizes PE. An overview of pre-ribosomal RNA processing in eukaryotes. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2015;6(2):225-42.
Ginisty H, Amalric F, Bouvet P. Nucleolin functions in the first step of ribosomal RNA processing. EMBO J. 1998;17(5):1476-86.
Deutscher MP. Maturation and degradation of ribosomal RNA in bacteria. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2009;85:369-91.
Brosius J, Dull TJ, Sleeter DD, Noller HF. Gene organization and primary structure of a ribosomal RNA operon from Escherichia coli. J Mol Biol. 1981;148(2):107-27.
Kaczanowska M, Rydén-Aulin M. Ribosome biogenesis and the translation process in Escherichia coli. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2007;71(3):477-94.
Takada H, Shimada T, Dey D, Quyyum MZ, Nakano M, Ishiguro A, et al. Differential Regulation of rRNA and tRNA Transcription from the rRNA-tRNA Composite Operon in Escherichia coli. PLoS One. 2016;11(12):e0163057.
Stiege W, Stade K, Schüler D, Brimacombe R. Covalent cross-linking of poly(A) to Escherichia coli ribosomes, and localization of the cross-link site within the 16S RNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 1988;16(6):2369-88.
Eichler DC, Craig N. Processing of eukaryotic ribosomal RNA. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol. 1994;49:197-239.
Madani M, Ward L, Vierstraete A, De Boer SH, Moens M. The ribosomal intergenic spacer (IGS) in the potato and tobacco cyst nematodes, Globodera pallida, G. rostochiensis and G. tabacum. Mol Cell Probes. 2019;48:101441.
van Nues RW, Venema J, Rientjes JM, Dirks-Mulder A, Raué HA. Processing of eukaryotic pre-rRNA: the role of the transcribed spacers. Biochem Cell Biol. 1995;73(11-12):789-801.
Barciszewska MZ, Szymański M, Erdmann VA, Barciszewski J. 5S ribosomal RNA. Biomacromolecules. 2000;1(3):297-302.
Filipowicz W, Pelczar P, Pogacic V, Dragon F. Structure and biogenesis of small nucleolar RNAs acting as guides for ribosomal RNA modification. Acta Biochim Pol. 1999;46(2):377-89.
Decatur WA, Fournier MJ. rRNA modifications and ribosome function. Trends Biochem Sci. 2002;27(7):344-51.
Nicoloso M, Qu LH, Michot B, Bachellerie JP. Intron-encoded, antisense small nucleolar RNAs: the characterization of nine novel species points to their direct role as guides for the 2'-O-ribose methylation of rRNAs. J Mol Biol. 1996;260(2):178-95.
Roiha H, Miller JR, Woods LC, Glover DM. Arrangements and rearrangements of sequences flanking the two types of rDNA insertion in D. melanogaster. Nature. 1981;290(5809):749-53.
Netzker R, Köchel HG, Basak N, Küntzel H. Nucleotide sequence of Aspergillus nidulans mitochondrial genes coding for ATPase subunit 6, cytochrome oxidase subunit 3, seven unidentified proteins, four tRNAs and L-rRNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 1982;10(15):4783-94.
Matlin AJ, Clark F, Smith CW. Understanding alternative splicing: towards a cellular code. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2005;6(5):386-98.
De Conti L, Baralle M, Buratti E. Exon and intron definition in pre-mRNA splicing. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2013;4(1):49-60.
Hastings ML, Resta N, Traum D, Stella A, Guanti G, Krainer AR. An LKB1 AT-AC intron mutation causes Peutz-Jeghers syndrome via splicing at noncanonical cryptic splice sites. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2005;12(1):54-9.
Irimia M, Roy SW. Origin of spliceosomal introns and alternative splicing. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2014;6(6).
Sharp PA, Burge CB. Classification of introns: U2-type or U12-type. Cell. 1997;91(7):875-9.
Lee Y, Rio DC. Mechanisms and Regulation of Alternative Pre-mRNA Splicing. Annu Rev Biochem. 2015;84:291-323.
Lamond AI. The spliceosome. Bioessays. 1993;15(9):595-603.
Will CL, Lührmann R. Spliceosome structure and function. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2011;3(7).
Tarn WY, Steitz JA. A novel spliceosome containing U11, U12, and U5 snRNPs excises a minor class (AT-AC) intron in vitro. Cell. 1996;84(5):801-11.
Morais P, Adachi H, Yu YT. Spliceosomal snRNA Epitranscriptomics. Front Genet. 2021;12:652129.
Black DL. Mechanisms of alternative pre-messenger RNA splicing. Annu Rev Biochem. 2003;72:291-336.
Pan Q, Shai O, Lee LJ, Frey BJ, Blencowe BJ. Deep surveying of alternative splicing complexity in the human transcriptome by high-throughput sequencing. Nat Genet. 2008;40(12):1413-5.
Leff SE, Rosenfeld MG, Evans RM. Complex transcriptional units: diversity in gene expression by alternative RNA processing. Annu Rev Biochem. 1986;55:1091-117.
Liu Q, Fang L, Wu C. Alternative Splicing and Isoforms: From Mechanisms to Diseases. Genes (Basel). 2022;13(3).
Zhao S. Alternative splicing, RNA-seq and drug discovery. Drug Discov Today. 2019;24(6):1258-67.
Brown GG, Colas des Francs-Small C, Ostersetzer-Biran O. Group II intron splicing factors in plant mitochondria. Front Plant Sci. 2014;5:35.
Lee CH, Han SR, Lee SW. Group I Intron-Based Therapeutics Through Trans-Splicing Reaction. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2018;159:79-100.
Pyle AM, Fedorova O, Waldsich C. Folding of group II introns: a model system for large, multidomain RNAs? Trends Biochem Sci. 2007;32(3):138-45.
Daniels DL, Michels WJ, Pyle AM. Two competing pathways for self-splicing by group II introns: a quantitative analysis of in vitro reaction rates and products. J Mol Biol. 1996;256(1):31-49.
Michel F, Westhof E. Modelling of the three-dimensional architecture of group I catalytic introns based on comparative sequence analysis. J Mol Biol. 1990;216(3):585-610.
Hausner G, Hafez M, Edgell DR. Bacterial group I introns: mobile RNA catalysts. Mob DNA. 2014;5(1):8.
Tanner NK. Ribozymes: the characteristics and properties of catalytic RNAs. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 1999;23(3):257-75.
Tang W, Fei Y, Page M. Biological significance of RNA editing in cells. Mol Biotechnol. 2012;52(1):91-100.
Nishikura K. Functions and regulation of RNA editing by ADAR deaminases. Annu Rev Biochem. 2010;79:321-49.
Christofi T, Zaravinos A. RNA editing in the forefront of epitranscriptomics and human health. J Transl Med. 2019;17(1):319.
Holland KA, Richardson N, Somasekaram A, Navaratnam N. RNA editing. Front Horm Res. 1999;25:101-21.
Aphasizhev R, Aphasizheva I. Mitochondrial RNA editing in trypanosomes: small RNAs in control. Biochimie. 2014;100:125-31.
Rauhut R, Klug G. mRNA degradation in bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 1999;23(3):353-70.
Parker R, Song H. The enzymes and control of eukaryotic mRNA turnover. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2004;11(2):121-7.
Referanslar
Rio DC. RNA processing. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1992;4(3):444-52.
Ruta V, Pagliarini V, Sette C. Coordination of RNA Processing Regulation by Signal Transduction Pathways. Biomolecules. 2021;11(10).
Alifano P, Bruni CB, Carlomagno MS. Control of mRNA processing and decay in prokaryotes. Genetica. 1994;94(2-3):157-72.
Hocine S, Singer RH, Grünwald D. RNA processing and export. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2010;2(12):a000752.
Ghosh A, Lima CD. Enzymology of RNA cap synthesis. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2010;1(1):152-72.
Shuman S. Structure, mechanism, and evolution of the mRNA capping apparatus. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol. 2001;66:1-40.
Ramanathan A, Robb GB, Chan SH. mRNA capping: biological functions and applications. Nucleic Acids Res. 2016;44(16):7511-26.
Topisirovic I, Svitkin YV, Sonenberg N, Shatkin AJ. Cap and cap-binding proteins in the control of gene expression. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2011;2(2):277-98.
Evdokimova V, Ruzanov P, Imataka H, Raught B, Svitkin Y, Ovchinnikov LP, et al. The major mRNA-associated protein YB-1 is a potent 5' cap-dependent mRNA stabilizer. EMBO J. 2001;20(19):5491-502.
Banerjee AK. 5'-terminal cap structure in eucaryotic messenger ribonucleic acids. Microbiol Rev. 1980;44(2):175-205.
Hall TM. Poly(A) tail synthesis and regulation: recent structural insights. Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2002;12(1):82-8.
Passmore LA, Coller J. Roles of mRNA poly(A) tails in regulation of eukaryotic gene expression. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2022;23(2):93-106.
Phizicky EM, Hopper AK. tRNA biology charges to the front. Genes Dev. 2010;24(17):1832-60.
Deutscher MP. Processing of tRNA in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. CRC Crit Rev Biochem. 1984;17(1):45-71.
Lorenz C, Lünse CE, Mörl M. tRNA Modifications: Impact on Structure and Thermal Adaptation. Biomolecules. 2017;7(2).
Apirion D, Miczak A. RNA processing in prokaryotic cells. Bioessays. 1993;15(2):113-20.
Evans D, Marquez SM, Pace NR. RNase P: interface of the RNA and protein worlds. Trends Biochem Sci. 2006;31(6):333-41.
Altman S. Biosynthesis of transfer RNA in Escherichia coli. Cell. 1975;4(1):21-9.
Schedl P, Primakoff P. Mutants of Escherichia coli thermosensitive for the synthesis of transfer RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973;70(7):2091-5.
Bikoff EK, Gefter ML. In vitro synthesis of transfer RNA. I. Purification of required components. J Biol Chem. 1975;250(16):6240-7.
Huang H, Li H, Pan R, Wang S, Liu X. tRNA modifications and their potential roles in pancreatic cancer. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2021;714:109083.
Chen X, Li S, Zhang B, Sun H, Wang J, Zhang W, et al. A new bacterial tRNA enhances antibiotic production in Streptomyces by circumventing inefficient wobble base-pairing. Nucleic Acids Res. 2022;50(12):7084-96.
Sharp SJ, Schaack J, Cooley L, Burke DJ, Söll D. Structure and transcription of eukaryotic tRNA genes. CRC Crit Rev Biochem. 1985;19(2):107-44.
Dieci G, Fiorino G, Castelnuovo M, Teichmann M, Pagano A. The expanding RNA polymerase III transcriptome. Trends Genet. 2007;23(12):614-22.
Deutscher MP. Ribonucleases, tRNA nucleotidyltransferase, and the 3' processing of tRNA. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol. 1990;39:209-40.
Pöhler MT, Roach TM, Betat H, Jackman JE, Mörl M. A Temporal Order in 5'- and 3'- Processing of Eukaryotic tRNA. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(6).
Henras AK, Plisson-Chastang C, O'Donohue MF, Chakraborty A, Gleizes PE. An overview of pre-ribosomal RNA processing in eukaryotes. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2015;6(2):225-42.
Ginisty H, Amalric F, Bouvet P. Nucleolin functions in the first step of ribosomal RNA processing. EMBO J. 1998;17(5):1476-86.
Deutscher MP. Maturation and degradation of ribosomal RNA in bacteria. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2009;85:369-91.
Brosius J, Dull TJ, Sleeter DD, Noller HF. Gene organization and primary structure of a ribosomal RNA operon from Escherichia coli. J Mol Biol. 1981;148(2):107-27.
Kaczanowska M, Rydén-Aulin M. Ribosome biogenesis and the translation process in Escherichia coli. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2007;71(3):477-94.
Takada H, Shimada T, Dey D, Quyyum MZ, Nakano M, Ishiguro A, et al. Differential Regulation of rRNA and tRNA Transcription from the rRNA-tRNA Composite Operon in Escherichia coli. PLoS One. 2016;11(12):e0163057.
Stiege W, Stade K, Schüler D, Brimacombe R. Covalent cross-linking of poly(A) to Escherichia coli ribosomes, and localization of the cross-link site within the 16S RNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 1988;16(6):2369-88.
Eichler DC, Craig N. Processing of eukaryotic ribosomal RNA. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol. 1994;49:197-239.
Madani M, Ward L, Vierstraete A, De Boer SH, Moens M. The ribosomal intergenic spacer (IGS) in the potato and tobacco cyst nematodes, Globodera pallida, G. rostochiensis and G. tabacum. Mol Cell Probes. 2019;48:101441.
van Nues RW, Venema J, Rientjes JM, Dirks-Mulder A, Raué HA. Processing of eukaryotic pre-rRNA: the role of the transcribed spacers. Biochem Cell Biol. 1995;73(11-12):789-801.
Barciszewska MZ, Szymański M, Erdmann VA, Barciszewski J. 5S ribosomal RNA. Biomacromolecules. 2000;1(3):297-302.
Filipowicz W, Pelczar P, Pogacic V, Dragon F. Structure and biogenesis of small nucleolar RNAs acting as guides for ribosomal RNA modification. Acta Biochim Pol. 1999;46(2):377-89.
Decatur WA, Fournier MJ. rRNA modifications and ribosome function. Trends Biochem Sci. 2002;27(7):344-51.
Nicoloso M, Qu LH, Michot B, Bachellerie JP. Intron-encoded, antisense small nucleolar RNAs: the characterization of nine novel species points to their direct role as guides for the 2'-O-ribose methylation of rRNAs. J Mol Biol. 1996;260(2):178-95.
Roiha H, Miller JR, Woods LC, Glover DM. Arrangements and rearrangements of sequences flanking the two types of rDNA insertion in D. melanogaster. Nature. 1981;290(5809):749-53.
Netzker R, Köchel HG, Basak N, Küntzel H. Nucleotide sequence of Aspergillus nidulans mitochondrial genes coding for ATPase subunit 6, cytochrome oxidase subunit 3, seven unidentified proteins, four tRNAs and L-rRNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 1982;10(15):4783-94.
Matlin AJ, Clark F, Smith CW. Understanding alternative splicing: towards a cellular code. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2005;6(5):386-98.
De Conti L, Baralle M, Buratti E. Exon and intron definition in pre-mRNA splicing. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2013;4(1):49-60.
Hastings ML, Resta N, Traum D, Stella A, Guanti G, Krainer AR. An LKB1 AT-AC intron mutation causes Peutz-Jeghers syndrome via splicing at noncanonical cryptic splice sites. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2005;12(1):54-9.
Irimia M, Roy SW. Origin of spliceosomal introns and alternative splicing. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2014;6(6).
Sharp PA, Burge CB. Classification of introns: U2-type or U12-type. Cell. 1997;91(7):875-9.
Lee Y, Rio DC. Mechanisms and Regulation of Alternative Pre-mRNA Splicing. Annu Rev Biochem. 2015;84:291-323.
Lamond AI. The spliceosome. Bioessays. 1993;15(9):595-603.
Will CL, Lührmann R. Spliceosome structure and function. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2011;3(7).
Tarn WY, Steitz JA. A novel spliceosome containing U11, U12, and U5 snRNPs excises a minor class (AT-AC) intron in vitro. Cell. 1996;84(5):801-11.
Morais P, Adachi H, Yu YT. Spliceosomal snRNA Epitranscriptomics. Front Genet. 2021;12:652129.
Black DL. Mechanisms of alternative pre-messenger RNA splicing. Annu Rev Biochem. 2003;72:291-336.
Pan Q, Shai O, Lee LJ, Frey BJ, Blencowe BJ. Deep surveying of alternative splicing complexity in the human transcriptome by high-throughput sequencing. Nat Genet. 2008;40(12):1413-5.
Leff SE, Rosenfeld MG, Evans RM. Complex transcriptional units: diversity in gene expression by alternative RNA processing. Annu Rev Biochem. 1986;55:1091-117.
Liu Q, Fang L, Wu C. Alternative Splicing and Isoforms: From Mechanisms to Diseases. Genes (Basel). 2022;13(3).
Zhao S. Alternative splicing, RNA-seq and drug discovery. Drug Discov Today. 2019;24(6):1258-67.
Brown GG, Colas des Francs-Small C, Ostersetzer-Biran O. Group II intron splicing factors in plant mitochondria. Front Plant Sci. 2014;5:35.
Lee CH, Han SR, Lee SW. Group I Intron-Based Therapeutics Through Trans-Splicing Reaction. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2018;159:79-100.
Pyle AM, Fedorova O, Waldsich C. Folding of group II introns: a model system for large, multidomain RNAs? Trends Biochem Sci. 2007;32(3):138-45.
Daniels DL, Michels WJ, Pyle AM. Two competing pathways for self-splicing by group II introns: a quantitative analysis of in vitro reaction rates and products. J Mol Biol. 1996;256(1):31-49.
Michel F, Westhof E. Modelling of the three-dimensional architecture of group I catalytic introns based on comparative sequence analysis. J Mol Biol. 1990;216(3):585-610.
Hausner G, Hafez M, Edgell DR. Bacterial group I introns: mobile RNA catalysts. Mob DNA. 2014;5(1):8.
Tanner NK. Ribozymes: the characteristics and properties of catalytic RNAs. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 1999;23(3):257-75.
Tang W, Fei Y, Page M. Biological significance of RNA editing in cells. Mol Biotechnol. 2012;52(1):91-100.
Nishikura K. Functions and regulation of RNA editing by ADAR deaminases. Annu Rev Biochem. 2010;79:321-49.
Christofi T, Zaravinos A. RNA editing in the forefront of epitranscriptomics and human health. J Transl Med. 2019;17(1):319.
Holland KA, Richardson N, Somasekaram A, Navaratnam N. RNA editing. Front Horm Res. 1999;25:101-21.
Aphasizhev R, Aphasizheva I. Mitochondrial RNA editing in trypanosomes: small RNAs in control. Biochimie. 2014;100:125-31.
Rauhut R, Klug G. mRNA degradation in bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 1999;23(3):353-70.
Parker R, Song H. The enzymes and control of eukaryotic mRNA turnover. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2004;11(2):121-7.
