Sosyal Kaytarma
Özet
Sosyal kaytarma, bireylerin tek başlarına çalışmalarına kıyasla bir grup içerisinde kolektif olarak çalışırken daha az çaba gösterme eğilimi olarak tanımlanmaktadır. İlk olarak 1913 yılında ziraat mühendisi Maximilien Ringelmann’ın gerçekleştirdiği halat çekme deneyiyle "Ringelmann Etkisi" biçiminde gözlemlenen bu olgu, 1979 yılında Latané, Williams ve Harkins’in el çırpma ve tezahürat deneylerine dayanan araştırmalarıyla literatüre "sosyal kaytarma" kavramı olarak kazandırılmıştır. Bu davranışı açıklamak amacıyla Sosyal Etki Kuramı, Uyarılmayı Azaltma, Değerlendirme Potansiyeli, Çabanın Gereksizliği, Çabanın Denkliği ve Kolektif Çaba Modeli (CEM) gibi çeşitli teorik yaklaşımlar geliştirilmiştir. Sosyal kaytarmanın ortaya çıkmasına yol açan öncüller bireysel ve grup düzeyinde iki ana kategoride incelenmektedir. Bireysel düzeyde görev görünürlüğü, göreve atfedilen önem, örgütsel adalet algısı, cinsiyet, kültür ve kişilik özellikleri belirleyici olurken; grup düzeyinde ise grup büyüklüğü, grup bağlılığı, iş arkadaşlarının algılanan sosyal kaytarması ve sosyal telafi unsurları etkili olmaktadır. Çalışmalar, grup büyüklüğü arttıkça ve bireysel performansın ayırt edilebilirliği azaldıkça sosyal kaytarmanın yükseldiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Örgütlerin bu durumu önleyebilmeleri amacıyla grup üye sayılarını makul tutmaları, bireysel katkıları değerlendirerek geri bildirim sunmaları, performansa dayalı adil ödül ve adalet sistemleri kurmaları tavsiye edilmektedir.
Social loafing is defined as the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when working collectively in a group compared to working individually. First observed as the "Ringelmann Effect" in 1913 through agricultural engineer Maximilien Ringelmann's rope-pulling experiment, this phenomenon was introduced into the literature as "social loafing" in 1979 through research based on clapping and cheering experiments by Latané, Williams, and Harkins. Various theoretical approaches have been developed to explain this behavior, including Social Impact Theory, Arousal Reduction, Evaluation Potential, Dispensability of Effort, Matching of Effort, and the Collective Effort Model (CEM). The antecedents leading to social loafing are examined under two main categories: individual-level and group-level. At the individual level, task visibility, task meaningfulness, perceptions of organizational justice, gender, culture, and personality traits play a decisive role; whereas at the group level, factors such as group size, group cohesiveness, coworkers' perceived social loafing, and social compensation are influential. Studies demonstrate that social loafing increases as group size grows and as the distinguishability of individual performance decreases. To prevent this situation, organizations are advised to keep group sizes at reasonable levels, evaluate individual contributions to provide feedback, establish fair performance-based reward systems, and make job tasks meaningful for employees.
Referanslar
Aggarwal, P. & O'Brien, C. L. (2008). Social loafing on group projects: Structural antecedents and effect on student satisfaction. Journal of Marketing Education, 30(3), 255-264.
Ambrose, M. L. & Kulik, C. T. (1999). Old friends, new faces: Motivation research in the 1990s. Journal of Management, 25(3), 231–292.
Bolin, A. U. (2002). The relationships among personality, process, and performance in interactive brainstorming groups. Doctoral Thesis, Northern Illinois University, USA.
Charbonnier, E., Huguet, P., Brauer, M., & Monteil, J. M. (1998). Social loafing and self-beliefs: People’s collective effort depends on the extent to which they distinguish themselves as better than others. Social Behavior and Personality, 26, 329-340.
Comer, D. R. 1995. A model of social loafing in real work groups. Human Relations, 48, 647–667.
Elsaid, A. M. M. (2005). The effects of group beliefs and task meaningfulness on social loafing. Doctoral Thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, USA.
Early, P. C. (1989). Social loafing and collectivism: A comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China. Administrative Science Quarterly, 565-581.
Earley, P. C. (1994). Self or group? Cultural effects of training on self-efficacy and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 89-117.
George, J. M. (1992). Extrinsic and intrinsic origins of perceived social loafing in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 35(1), 191-202.
George, J. M. (1995). Asymmetrical effects of rewards and punishments: The case of social loafing. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 68, 327-338.
Harkins, G. S. (1987). Social loafing and social facilitation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 1-18.
Hart, J. W., Bridgett, D. J., & Karau, S. J. (2001). Coworker ability and effort as determinants of individual effort on a collective task. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5(3), 181-190.
Ingham, A. G., Levinger, G., Graves, J., & Peckham, V. (1974). The Ringelmann effect: Studies of group size and group performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10(4), 371–384.
Jackson, J. M. & Williams, K. D. (1985). Social loafing on difficult tasks: Working collectively can improve performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(4), 937.
Jackson, J. M., & Harkins, S. G. (1985). Equity in effort: An explanation of the social loafing effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(5), 1199-1206.
Jones, G. R. (1984). Task visibility, free riding, and shirking: Explaining the effect of structure and technology on employee behavior. Academy of Management Review, 9(4), 684-695.
Karau, S. J. & Williams, K. D. (1993). Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(4), 681-706.
Karau, S. J. & Williams, K. D. (1995). Social loafing: Research findings, implications, and future directions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(5), 134–140.
Karau, S. J. & Williams, K. D. (1997). The effects of group cohesiveness on social loafing and social compensation. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 1(2), 156-168.
Karau, S. J. & Hart, J. W. (1998). Group cohesiveness and social loafing: Effects of a social interaction manipulation on individual motivation within groups. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 2(3), 185-191.
Karau, S. J. & Wilhau, A. J. (2020). Social loafing and motivation gains in groups: An integrative review. Individual Motivation within Groups, 3-51.
Kerr, N. L. & Bruun, S. E. (1981). Ringelmann Revisited: Alternative Explanations for the Social Loafing Effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7(2), 224–231.
Kerr, N. L. (1983). Motivation losses in small groups: A social dilemma analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(4), 819–828.
Kerr, N. L. & Bruun, S. E. (1983). Dispensability of member effort and group motivation losses: Free-rider effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 78.
Kidwell, R. E. & Bennett, N. (1993). Employee propensity to withhold effort: A conceptual model to intersect three avenues of research. Academy of Management Review, 18(3), 429-456.
Kugihara, N. (1999). Gender and social loafing in Japan. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139(4), 516-526.
Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. (1979). Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(6), 822-832.
Latané, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36(4), 343–356.
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Jaworski, R. A., & Bennett, N. (2004). Social loafing: A field investigation. Journal of Management, 30(2), 285-304.
Lynn, T. G., Lyons, R. M. & Bhaird, C. (2014). Social loafing in student entrepreneurship teams. Conference: ESU 2014 Conference At: Lund, Sweden.
Mete, H. A. (2021). Sağlık kurumlarında sosyal kaytarma, iş tatmini ve örgütsel bağlılık arasındaki ilişkilerin değerlendirilmesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Yönetimi Bölümü, Ankara.
Mulvey, P. W., Bowes-Sperry, L., & Klein, H. J. (1998). The effects of perceived loafing and defensive impression management on group effectiveness. Small Group Research, 29(3), 394-415.
Murphy, S. M., Wayne, S. J., Liden, R. C., & Erdogan, B. (2003). Understanding social loafing: The role of justice perceptions and exchange relationships. Human Relations, 56(1), 61-84.
Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good solider syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Schnake, M. E. (1991). Equity in effort: The" sucker effect" in co-acting groups. Journal of Management, 17(1), 41-55.
Simms, A. & Nichols, T. (2014). Social loafing: A review of the literature. Journal of Management, 15(1), 58-67.
Soylu, S. S. (2019). The effect of perceived task visibility and leadership style on social loafing. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi İşletme Bölümü, İstanbul.
Stark, E. M., Shaw, J. D., & Duffy, M. K. (2007). Preference for group work, winning orientation, and social loafing behavior in groups. Group & Organization Management, 32(6), 699-723.
Steiner, I. D. (1972) Group process and productivity. New York: Academic Press.
Sun, Y., Wang, N., Yin, C. ve Che, T. (2012). Investigating the non-linear relationships in the expectancy theory: The case of crowdsourcing marketplace. AMCIS 2012 Proceedings. Paper 6.
Şeşen, H., Soran, S., & Caymaz, E. (2014). Dark side of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB): Testing a model between OCB, social loafing and organizational commitment. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 5(5), 125-135.
Tan, H. H. & Tan, T. M. L. (2008). Organizational citizenship behavior and social loafing: The role of personality, motives, and contextual factors. The Journal of psychology, 142(1), 89-108.
Ülke, H. E. (2006). Investigating the role of personality and justice perceptions on social loafing. Unpublished Master's Thesis. Middle East Technical University, the Graduate School of Social Sciences, Ankara.
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. Jossey-Bass Publishers. San Francisco.
Williams, K., Harkins, S. G., & Latané, B. (1981). Identifiability as a deterrant to social loafing: Two cheering experiments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(2), 303-311.
Williams, K. D. & Karau, S. J. (1991). Social loafing and social compensation: The effects of expectations of co-worker performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 570-581.
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/loaf_2
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/loaf?q=loafing
